


HUGHES'S 

Common School Branches 

^ In • a • JMutshelL^ 



Prepared for tKe IJeiveffl: of TeacKers and 
Students* 



By JOSIAH hughes, 

Autlior of "The Teachers' and Students' Question Book" and -'Questions 
and Answers on U. S. History." 




PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 
CHARLESTON, W. VA. 



HUGHES' 



0OMMON SCHOOL BRANCHES 



IN A NUTSHELL. 



Prepared for the Benefit of TEAeHS^s 
AND Students, 



By JOSIAH hughes, 

Author of "The Teachers' and Students' Question Book" and "Questions 
and Answers on U. S. History." 



PUBLISHED BY THK AUTHOR, CHARLESTON, W. VA. 



V^V 



CHARLESTON, W. VA. : 
BUTLER PRINTING COMPANY, 



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Copyright by JOSIAH HUOHE8, 

1892. 



PREFACE 



The object aimed at in the preparation of this work has 
been to compile a pocket library of the branches taught in 
the Common Schools, for the use of teachers, advanced 
students and private learners in reviewing the branches, 
and extending their knowledge of them. 

In every branch of study there are certain essential prin- 
ciples and facts which should be remembered. These should 
be reviewed frequently, for every repetition seems to im- 
press an object of thought more indelibly upon the memo- 
ry. The review should not be voluminous, yet it should be 
comprehensive enough to give the student a clear knowl- 
edge of the subject reviewed. In the preparation of this 
work, the author's aim has been to furnish just such a re- 
view. 

The author sul)mits this work to a <iiscrlminating public, 
with the hope that it may prove to b? helpful to teachers 
and students. 



INDEX. 



Orthography 5 

Eeading 9 

Penmanship 12 

U. a History 15 

Geography 27 

Physiology T. 35 

Civil Government 41 

Book-keeping 48 

Teaching 52 

Grammar 57 

Arithmetic" 79 

Ge xera l History 98 



®rtf]ograpt]y. 



1. Orthography treats of lettters, syllables, and 
words. 

2. A Letter is a character used to represent one or 
more elementary sounds. 

3. An Alphabet is a system of characters used to 
represent the elementary sounds of a language. 

4. The name of a letter is the appellation by which 
it is known. 

5. The Power of a letter is the elementary sound 
which it represents. 

6.. Letters are divided, with respect to the sounds 
they represent, into Vowels and Consonants. 

7. A Vowel ig a letter that stands for a free, open 
sound of the voice. 

8. A Consonant is a letter that stands for a sound 
made by the obstructed voice or the obstructed breath. 

9. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, iv, and y. 

10. W and y are consonants, when they immediately 
precede a vowel sounded in the same syllable. 

11. The Vowel Sounds of w and y are the same as 
those of u and i. 

12. I is a consonant, when it represents the sound 
of ^ consonant. 



6 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

13. U is a consonant, when it has the sound of w 
consonant. 

14. A, e,and o are always vowels. 

15 A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one 
sound. 

16. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels 
are sounded. 

17. An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one in 
which but one vowel is sounded. 

18. A Triphthong, or trigraph, is the union of three 
vowels in the same syllable. 

19. Consonants Classified : (1.) As to the nature of 
the sound represented, consonants may be classified 
as Subvocals and Aspirates. (2.) As to position of 
organs in giving the sounds, they may be classified as 
Mutes and Semivowels. (3.) As to the organs that 
mainly operate to produce consonant sounds, they 
may be classified as Labials, Linguals, Linguo-dentals, 
Linguo-nasals, Palato-nasals and Palatals. 

20. Subvocals are those consonants which represent 
subvocal or obstructed sounds. 

21. Aspirates are those consonants which represent 
sharp, hissing sounds. 

22. Mutes are those consonants whose sounds can 
not be prolonged. 

23. Semivowels are those consonants whose sounds 
may be prolonged. 

24. Labials are letters whose sounds are made by the 
lips. 

25. Linguals are letters whose sounds are made by 
the tongue. 

26. Linguo-dentals are letters whose sounds are made 
by the tongue and teeth. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 

27. Linguo-nasals are letters whose sounds are artic- 
ulated by the tongue, the sound passing through the 
nose. 

28. Palato-nasals are letters whose sounds are made 
by the palate, the sound passing through the nose. 

29. Liquids are those letters which represent sounds 
which seem to flow readily into other sounds. They 
are /, ???,, n, and r. 

30. Redundant Letters are those which have no 
sounds of their own ; as, c, x. q,j. 

31. Cognate Letters are those whose sounds are pro- 
duced by the same organs of speech in a similar man- 
ner, as /"and V. 

32. A Final Letter is o!ie that ends a word. 

33. A Silent Letter is one not sounded. 

34. An Aphtliong is afsilent letter. 

35. An Elementary Sound is a simple sound. 

36. The Elementary Sounds of the English language 
are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates. 

Remark. — Mark the distinction between subvocal 
sounds and subvocal letters; also between aspirate 
sounds and aspirate letters. 

37. A Syllable is a letter, or a comV)ination of letters, 
uttered with one impulse of the voice. 

38. A Word is a syllable, or a combination of sylla- 
bles, used as the sign of an idea. 

39. Accent is a stress of voice laid on a certain s\^l]a- 
ble when a word is uttered. 

40. With respect to their number of syllables, words 
are divided into four classes ; MonosyJldbles, Dlxsyllnhles, 
Trisyllables, and Polysyllables. 

41. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable. 

42. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables. 



8 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

43. A Trisyllable i? a word of three S3'llables. 

44. A Polysyllable is a word of four or more sylla- 
bles. 

45. With respect to their form, words are classified 
as Primitive, D/'rivntive, and Compound. 

46. A Primitive Word is one which is not derived 
from any other in the game language. 

47. A Derivative Word is one which is formed from 
a single simpler word, by the addition of one or more 
letters. 

48. A Compound Word is one composed of two or 
more words. 

49. A Prefix is an addition to the beginning of a 
word. 

50. A Sufiix is an addition to the end of a word. 

51. The Root of a derivative word is the primitive 
part. 

52. The Base of a compound word is the part modi- 
fied. 

53. Syllabication is the proper division of words into 
syllables. 

54. Tlie Ultimate Syllable is the last syllable of a 
word. 

55. The Penultimate Syllable is the last but one. 

5(x The Antepenultimate Syllable is the last but two. 

57. The Preantepenultimate Syllable is the la.^t but 
three. 

58. The Basis of a written or printed syllable is the 
vowel. 

59. The Basis of a spoken syllable is the vocal. 

60. Orthoepy treats of the correct pronunciation of 
words. 



READING. 9 

61. Phonology treats of the science of elementary 
sounds. 

62. Diacritical Marks are characters used to indicate 
the sounds of letters. 

63. Spelling is the distinct expression of the letters 
or sounds of a word, in their proper order. 

64. Orthographic Spelling is the expression of the 
letters of a word, in their proper order. 

65. Phonetic Spelling is the expression of the ele- 
mentary sownch of a word, in their proper order. 

66. Pronunciation is the act of uttering words or 
parts of words. 



Keabing. 



1. Reading is imbibing the thoughts, feelings, and 
sentiments of an author. 

2. Silent Reading is imbibing the thoughts, feelings, 
and sentiments of an author, without giving utterance 
to the languaLj;e. 

3. Audible Reading is imbibing the thoughts, feel- 
ings, and sentiments of an author, and giving utter- 
ance to the language. 

4. Elocution is the science and art of the delivery of 
composition. 

5. Articulation is the distinct utterance of the ele- 
mentary sounds, and of their combinations in words. 

6. Emphasis is a stress of voice placed on one or 
more words of a sentence. 



10 READING. 

7. Absolute Emphasis is that which is independent 
of any contrast or comparison with other words or 
ideas. 

8. Antithetic Emphasis (Relative) is that which is 
used where there is antithesis either expressed or im- 
plied. 

9. Cumulative Emphasis is that which is applied to a 
succession of emphatic words in which the last re- 
ceives more emphasis than the one preceding it. 

10. Inflections are slides of the voice either upward 
or downward. 

11. The Rising Inflection is that in which the voice 
slides upward. 

12. The Falling Inflection is that in which the voice 
slides downward. 

13. The Circumflex is a union of the rising and fall- 
ing inflections on the same word. 

14. Modulation is the correct variations of the voice 
in reading and speaking. 

15. Monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a sen- 
tence or discourse. 

16. Cadence is the natural dropping of the voice at 
the close of a sentence. 

17. Pauses are cessations of the voice in reading 
and speaking. 

18. The Grammatical Pauses are those which indicate 
the grammatical divisions of discourse. They are 
represented by the punctuation marks. 

19. The Rhetorical Pauses are those made in order 
to bring out the sense or express the sentiment 
They are not marked, but are determined wholly by 
the sense to be expressed and the judgment of the 
reader. 



READING. 11 

20. Quantity has reference to loudness or volume of 
sound. 

21. Force is the degree of loudness or energy with 
which sounds are uttered. 

22. Stress is force applied to particular parts of 
monosyllabic words or syllables. 

23. Slur is that smooth, gliding, subdued move- 
ment of the voice applied to the less important parts 
of a discourse. 

24. Quality has reference to the kind of tone used in 
speaking and reading. 

25. Pitch refers to the general tone of the voice in 
reading and speaking. 

26. The Key-Note is the standard pitch of the voice 
in reading and speaking. 

27. The Compass of the voice is its general range 
above and below the key-note. 

28. Rate is the degree of rapidity with which the 
voice moves in reading and speaking. 

29. Gesture refers to the movements of the body 
and its members. 

30. Transition is change in the manner of expres- 
sion. 

31. Personation is the representation of the tones 
and manners of other persons. 

32. A Series is a number of particulars following 
one another in the same construction. 

33. A Climax is a series of particulars gradually in- 
creasing in importance to the last. 



12 PENMANSHIP. 



pcnrrtansl^tp. 



1. Penmanship is the art of writing. It is based 
upon movement. 

2. Movement is the manner of moving the arm, 
hand, and pen in writing. 

3. Kinds of Movement: Finger, Fore-arm (Muscu- 
lar), Combined, and Whole Arm. 

4. The Finger Movement is that in which the arm 
and hand rest and the fingers and thumb contract. 

6. The Fore-arm Movement (Muscular) is the action 
of the fore-arrn upon its muscular rest below the 
elbow, keeping the first and second fingers from 
motion. 

6. The Combined Movement is the united action of 
the fore-arm and the first and second fingers. 

7. The Whole Arm Movement is that in which the 
arm moves independent of any muscular rest. 

8. Position relates to the manner of sitting at the 
desk. The principal positions used in writing are the 
Front, the Right, and the Left positions. 

9. A Line is the path of a moving pen. 

10. A Straight Line is one which has no change of 
direction. 

11. A Cnrved Lino is one which has a continuous 
change of direction. There are two kinds of curved 
lines, — right curve and left curve. 

12. A Right Cnrve is one which bends to the right 
of a straight line uniting its extremities. 



PENMANSHIP. 13 

13. A Left Curve is one which bends to the left of a 
straight line uniting its extremities. 

14. Parallel Lines are lines which have the same di- 
rection, and are equally distant from each other 
throughout their entire length. 

15. A Horizontal Line is one which is level, one end 
being no higher than the other. 

16. A Vertical Line is one which leans neither to the 
right nor the left. 

17. An Angle is the opening between two lines meet- 
ing in a point. 

18. A Point is the beginning or ending of a line, or 
the angular joining of two lines. 

19. A Loop is two crossing lines uniting at one end. 

20. A Turn is the merging of one distinct line into 
another. 

21. An Oval is an egg-shaped figure. 

22. A Direct Oval is one which begins with a de- 
scending left curve. 

23. A Reversed Oval is one which begins with an 
ascending left curve. 

24. The Base Line is the one upon which the letters 
rest. 

25- The Head Line is the one to which the short let- 
ters extend. 

26. The Intermediate Line is the one to which the 
semi-extended letters extend. 

27. The Top Line is the one to which the extended 
letters extend. 

28. A Space in height i§ the vertical height of the 
small letter i. 

29. A Space in width is the horizontal distance be- 
tween the straight lines in the small letter ii. 



14 PENMANSHIP. 

30. Glassiflcation of Letters. — The twenty-six letters 
have two^;distinct forms called Small and Capital. 
The capital letters are divided into three classes, — 
Direct Oval, Reversed Oval, and Capital Stem. The 
small letters are also divided into three classes, — 
Short, Semi-extended, and Extended. 

31. The Short Letters are thirteen in number, and 
are one ppace in height, except r and s, which are one 
and one-fourth spaces. Thev are i, u, id, n, m, v, x, o, c, 
a, e, r, and s. 

32. The Semi-extended Letters are so called because, 
as to their length, they are between the short and the 
extended letters. They are t, d, p, and q. 

33. The Extended Letters, or loop letters, are those 
whose principal form is the extended loop. They are 
h, h, I, h, j, y, gj, and z. 

34. Slant is the inclination of letters from a vertical 
position. The degree is the unit of measure. The main 
dant is 52 degree?, and the connective slant is 30 degrees* 

35. Principles are the constituent parts of letters. 
Most authors give seven principles, viz : (1.) straight 
line, (2.) right curve, (3.) left curve, (4.) extended 
loop,^(5. ) direct oval, (6.) reversed oval, and (7.) capi- 
tal stem. 

36. Pen Holding.— Hold" the pen between the first 
two fingers and? the thumb, so that it will cross the 
second finger at the root of the nail, the first finger 
resting on the holder about one inch from the point 
of the per. Place the thumb against the holder op- 
posite the first joint of the first finger, the holder 
crossing this finger just in front of the knuckle joint. 
The third and fourth fingers should, be brought back 
under the hand, and should slide freely on the paper. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 15 



U. 5. r?t5tory. 



970. Greenland discovered by Gunbiorn, a Nor- 
wegian. 

1001. Leif Erikson and Biorn, of Iceland, explored 
Vinland, Canada, Massachusetts, and other parts of 
North America. 

1492. Columbus discovered America, at the island 
of Guanahani, one of the Bahamas. 

1497. John Cabot discovered the coast of North 
America. 

1498. South America discovered by Columbus. 

1499. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian, a native of 
Florence, visited America, drew a map of the country, 
and wrote letters giving an account of his discoveries. 
His letters were published by a German geographer, 
who named the country in honor of Vespucci. 

1512. Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, seeking for a 
fabled fountain of immortal youth, discovered Florida. 

1513. Balboa, a Spaniard, discovered the Pacific 
Ocean. 

1518. Grijalva, a Spaniard, explored the southern 
coast of Mexico. 

1519-'21. Cortez, a Spaniard, conquered Mexico. 

1520. Magellan, a Spaniard, discovered and sailed 
through the strait which bears his name, n-amed the 
Pacific Ocean, and made the first circumnavigation of 
the globe. . 

1524. Verazzani, an Italian in the service of the 



16 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

French government, explored the eastern coast of 
North America. 

1528. Narvaez, a Spaniard, explored part of Flori- 
da. 

1534-'35. Cartier, a Frenchman, explored and 
named the gulf and river of St. Lawrence. 

1541. De Soto, a Spaniard, discovered the Missis- 
sippi River. 

1565. Melendez, a Spaniard, founded St. Augustine, 
Florida ; the first permanent settlement in the United 
States. 

1576. Frobisher, an Englishman, attempted to find 
a north-west passage to Asia. 

1579. Sir Francis Drake, an Englishman, explored 
the Pacific coast. 

1582, Espejo, a Spaniard, explored New Mexico, 
and founded Santa Fe ; the second oldest town in the 
United States. 

1584. Raleigh, an Englishman, sent out an expe- 
dition to Roanoke Island. 

1585. Lane's Colony, Raleigh's first attempt to form 
a settlement. 

1587. White's Colony, Raleigh's second attempt. 

1602. Gosnold, an Englishman, explored the coast 
of Massachusetts, and discovered and named Cape 
Cod. 

1607. Jamestown settled ; the first permanent En- 
glish settlement in the United States. 

1608. Champlain, a Frenchman, founded Quebec, 
and (1609-) discovered Lake Champlain. 

1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service 
of the Dutch, discovered the Hudson River. 

1614. Settlement of New York by the Dutch. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 17 

1619. First Legislative Assembly in America, at 
Jamestown, Virginia. 

1620. Slavery first introduced by a sale of twenty 
Africans, made by the Dutch to the Georgetown, Vir- 
ginia, planters. 

1620. Pilgrim Fathers, or Puritans, settled at New 
Plymouth, Mass. ; the first permanent English settle- 
ment in New England. 

1630. Boston founded by John Winthrop. 

1634. Maryland settled by the second Lord Balti- 
more. 

1636. Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams. 

1637. Peqnod War. John Mason led the colonial 
army ; the tribe perished in a da3^ 

1643. Union of the New England Colonies, — Massa- 
chusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
Haven. 

1651. Navigation Act passed; enforced in 1660, 
giving England entire control of all the trade of the 
colonies. 

1664. New York taken by the English, and the 
present name given. 

1673. New York re-gained by the Dutch, but lost 
again the next year. 

1675. King Philip, son of Massasoit, made war on 
the New England settlers ; King Philip, after losing 
most all his warriors by death, and his family by 
capture, fled to his home, where he was shot by a 
faithless Indian. 

1676. Bacon's Rebellion. Cause: Governor Berke- 
ley refused Bacon a commission to make war on hos- 
tile Indians, and Bacon went against them without 
any commission except his sword. Governor Berke- 



18 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

ley declared him a rebel, and afterward refused him a 
commission, although the Indians were committing 
depredations every day. A rebellion followed. Bacon 
died of fever, and his death ended the rebellion. 

1682. William Penn, an English Quaker, founded 
the colony of Pennsylvania as an asylum for the per- 
secuted English Quakers. 

1689-1697. King William's War, a war between 
England and France, which extended to their Ameri- 
can colonies. Closed by the Treaty of Ryswick. 

1692. Salem Witchcraft, a delusion which prevail- 
ed at Salem, Massachusetts. Twenty persons were 
hanged and many others were tortured into confes- 
sion, and thus saved themselves from punishment. 

1702-1713. Queen Anne's War, caused in Europe 
by an attempt made by England to prevent the union 
of France and Spain. In Europe it was called the 
War of the Spanish Succession. Closed by the Treaty 
of Utrecht. 

1733. Creorgia settled by James Oglethorpe, an Eng- 
lishman, whose object was to found an asylum for the 
persecuted Protestants of Europe, and for the poor 
who were imprisoned for debt, and others imprisoned 
for crime. 

1744-1748. King George's War, caused in Europe 
by disputes over the succession to the Austrian throne, 
in which France and England espoused opposite 
causes. The war extended to the French and English 
colonies in America. In Europe it was known as the 
War of the Austrian Succession. Closed by the 
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1754-1763. French and Indian War, caused by the 
conflicting claims of England and France. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 19 

1755. Braddock's Defeat near Fort Du Quesne, now 
Pittsburgh. 

1756. War formally declared by the French. 
1759. Capture of Quebec; Wolfe and Montcalm, the 

commanders, killed. 

1763. Treaty of Paris ; France ceded to England 
all her North American possessions east of the Missis- 
sippi, except the island and city of New Orleans. 

1765. The Stamp Act passed by Parliament. 

1765. The First Colonial Congress met in New York. 

1774. The First Continental Congress met in Phila- 
delphia. 

1775-1781. Revolutionary War, a war between Eng- 
land and her American colonies, caused mainly by 
an attempt made by England to tax the colonies, 
without allowing them representation in the British 
Parliament. 

1775. Battle of Lexington, the first battle of the 
war. 

1776. Declaration of Independence, July 4 ; propos- 
ed by Richard Henry Lee ; prepared by Thomas Jeff- 
erson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- 
man, and Robert R. Livingston ; written by Thomas 
Jefferson. 

1777. Burgoyne surrendered his whole army to 
Gates, at Saratoga, — the turning event of the war. 

1778. The Treaty of Alliance with France, by which 
France acknowledged the American Independence, 
and agreed to send a fleet of sixteen vessels and an 
army of 4,000 men to assist in the war. 

1779. John Paul Jones, a Scotch-American, noted 
for his wonderful pluck and skill in war, captured the 
Serapis and the Countess, 



20 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1780. Arnold's Treason. He sought and obtained 
command of West Point, a very important fortress. 
He bargained with General Clinton to deliver up the 
fortress for a general's commission in the British 
army and ten thousand pounds sterling. Major 
Andre, Clinton's messenger, was captured, and Arnold 
fled to a British vessel. Andre was hanged as a spy, 
October 2. 

1781. War ended by the surrender of Cornwallis to 
Washington, at Yorktown, October 19. 

1782. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry 
Laurens, and John Ja}^ were appointed commission- 
ers to conclude a treaty with Great Britain. Novem- 
ber 30, a preliminary treaty was signed at Paris. 

1783. The final treaty of peace, the Treaty of Paris, 
signed, September 3, and the United States gained 
their independence. 

1787. The Constitutional Convention met at Phila- 
delphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, but 
finding them too weak and defective for revision, form- 
ed an entirely new constitution, which was adopted the 
same year, and submitted to the several States for 
their ratification. 

1788. The Constitution ratified by all the States 
except Rhode Island and North Carolina. 

1789. The First Congress under the new constitu- 
tion met at New York ; George Washington inaugura- 
ted ; Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, Randolph, and Jay 
appointed as members of the cabinet. 

Washington, 1789-1797. 

1791. Vermont admitted into the Union. 

1792. Kentucky admitted into the Union. 

1793. The cotton-gin invented by Eli Whitney. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY, 21 

1794. The Whiskey Insurrection in Western Penn- 
sylvania. 

1796. Tennessee adniitted into the Union. 

Adams, 1797-1801. 

1797. Troubles with France. 

1798. Alien and Sedition laws passed. 

1799. Death of Washington at Mt. Vernon. 

1800. Capital removed to Washington. 

Jefferson, 1801-1809. 

1802. Ohio admitted into the Union. 

1803. Louisiana purchased from France for $15,- 
000,000. 

1804. Lewis and Clarke expedition; Hamilton- 
Burr duel. 

1807. First steamboat on the Hudson, invented by 
Robert Fulton. 

1807. Embt:rgo law pas.^ed. 

Madison, 1809-1817. 

1811. General Harrison defeated the Indians at 
Tippecanoe. 

1812. War declared against Great Britain, because 
of her violation of American commercial rights. 

1812. Louisiana admitted into the Union. 

1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 

1814. Treaty of Peace at Ghent, December 24. 

1815. Battle of New Orleans, Jfinuary 8. 

1816. National Bank established by Congress. 

1816. Indiana admitted into the Union. 

Monroe, 1817-1825. 

1817. Mississippi admitted into the Union. 

1818. Illinois admitted into the Union. 

1819. Alabama admitted into the Union. 

1819. Florida purchased from Spain for $5,000,000. 



22 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1820. Missouri Compromise passed ; Maine admit- 
ted. 

1821. Missouri admitted into the Union. 

1824. General Lafayette visited the United States. 

John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829. 
1826. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died, 
July 4. 

1826. The first railroad in the United States com- 
pleted. 

1828. Revision of the Tariff, the ''American Sys- 
tem." 

Jackson, 1829-1837. 

1831. James Monroe died, July 4. 

1832. Nullification ordinance passed by South Car- 
olina, 

1832. Black Hawk War began. 

1833. National Funds removed from the U. S. 
Bank. 

1835. Seminole War begun by Osceola. 

1836. Arkansas admitted into the Union. 
1887. Michigan admitted into the Union. 

Van Buren, 1837-1841. 

1837. Great financial panic. 

1838. Anti-slavery agitation. 

1840. Sub-Treasury Bill passed. 

W. H. Harrison, 1841. 

1841. Harrison died one month after inauguration. 

Tyler, 1841-1845. 

1842. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled the 
dispute between the United States and Great Britain 
over the boundary line of Maine. 

1842. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 23 

1843. The first magnetic telegraph erected in the 
world was put up between Washington and Balti- 
more. 

1844. First public message sent was concerning 
Polk's nomination for the presidency. 

1845. Florida and Texas admitted into the Union. 

Polk, 1845-1849. 

1846. Mexico declared war against the United 
States, caused by the annexation of Texas, which was 
claimed by Mexico. 

1846. Iowa admitted into the Union. 

1847. The city of Mexico surrendered. 

1848. Treaty of Guadaloupe Hildalgo, by which the 
United States gained the territory now comprised in 
New Mexico, Utah, and California; and the Rio 
Grande for the western boundary of the disputed ter- 
ritory. Mexico received $18,250,000 as purchase 
money. 

1848. Gold discovered in California. 
1848. Wisconsin admitted into the Union. 

Taylor, 1849-1850. 
1850. Death of John C. Calhoun. 
1850. Death of President Taylor, one year and four 
months after his inauguration. 

Fillmore, 1850-1853. 
1850. Clay's "Omnibus Bill" passed. 

1852. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster died. 

Pierce, 1853-1857. 

1853. The Gadsden Treaty— 27,000 square miles of 
territory acquired from Mexico for $10,000,000, and 
the Mexican line established. 

1851 Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed ; a bill which or- 
ganized the two territories, and gave the inhabitants of 



24 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

each the right to decide whether their territory should 
be admitted into the Union as free or slave. This 
bill abrogated the Missouri Compromise, which pro- 
vided that after 1820 slavery should be prohibited in 
all other territory west of the Mississippi and north 
of the southern boundary ol Missouri. 

1857. The Kansas War, caused by a rivalry be- 
tween the pro-slavery and anti-slavery parties. 
Buchanan, 1857-1861. 

1857. The Dred Scott Decision. 

1858. Minnesota admitted into the Union. 

1859. John Brown seized upon the United States 
Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and proclaimed freedom to 
slaves in that section. He was captured and hanged 
as a traitor. 

1860. Oregon admitted into the Union. 

1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union. 

1861. Kansas admitted into the Union. 

1861. Southern Confederacy organized at Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, with Jeflferson Davis as President 
and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. South 
Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Virginia, Tennessee, and 
North Carolina formed the Confederacy. 
Liiucoln, 1861-1865. 

1861. War with the Confederate States declared. 
Causes : The slavery agitation and the secession 
of the Southern States were the principal causes. 
Battle of Bull Run or Manassas Junction. 

1862. Capture of Fort Donelson ; battles of Shiloh, 
Seven Pines, Seven Days, Second of Manassas, Antie- 
tam, Perryville, and Fredericksburg. 

1868. Emancipation Proclamation; battles of 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 25 

Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, Mission- 
ary Ridge, and the surrender •of Vicksburg. West 
Virginia admitted into the Union. 

1864. Grant made Lieutenant-General ; Battle of 
the Wilderness ; Battle between the Kearsarge and the 
Alabama; Battle of Winchester ; Nevada admitted into 
the Union ; Sherman's March to the Sea ; Lincoln re- 
elected. 

1865. Petersburg and Richmond captured ; General 
Lee surrendered his army to General Grant at Appo- 
mattox Court-House, April 9 ; President Lincoln assas- 
sinated at Ford's Theatre in Washington, by John 
Wilkes Booth, April 14. 

Johnson, 1865-1869. 

1865. General Johnston surrendered to General 
Sherman, April 26. 

1866. Atlantic cable successfully laid between Ire- 
land and Newfoundland, by Cyrus W. Field. 

1867. Nebraska admitted into the Union ; Alaska 
purchased from Russia for $7,200,000 ; Tenure-of-Office 
Bill passed ; President Johnson impeached. 

Grant, 1869-1877. 

1869. Pacific Railroad opened, 

1870. The Fifteenth Amendment became a part of 
the Constitution. 

1871. Chicago fire — 3,000 acres devastated. 

1872. Alabama claims settled. 

1873. Modoc War ; Financial panic. 

1876. Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia ; Col- 
orado admitted into the Union ; the Custer slaughter. 

1877. Electoral Commission. 

Hayes, 18771 8 81. 
1877. Railroad strike ; Indian war. 



26 UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1879. Resumption of specie payment. 

1880. Treaties (twa) with China, respecting com- 
merce and immigration. 

Garfield, 1881. 

1881. July 2 — President Garfield was assasinated 
in the Baltimore and Potomac depot at Washington 
by Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker. 
The President died after ten weeks of great suffering. 

Arthur, 1881-1885. 

1881. Centennial anniversary of the capture of 
Yorktown. 

1882. Execution of Charles J. Guiteau, 

1883. The Civil Service Bill passed. 

Cleveland, 1885-1889. 

1885. Deaths of General U. S. Grant and Vice- 
President Hendricks. 

1886. Presidential Succession Bill passed. 

1887. Chicago anarchists hanged. 

Harrison, 1889-1893. 
1889. Oklahoma opened for settlement. 
1889. The Conemaugh disaster, or the Johnstown 
flood. 

1889. Admission of North Dakota, South Dakota, 
Montana, and Washington. 

1890. Admission of Idaho and Wyoming. 

1890. War with the Sioux Indians begins, and Sit- 
ting-Bull, the great Sioux chief, is killed. 

1891. Deaths of General William T. Sherman, 
William Windom (Secretary of Treasury), George 
Bancroft, and James Russell Lowell. 

1892. Dispute with Chili settled. 

1892. Deaths of George William Curtis, John Green- 
leaf Whittier, Cyrus W. Field, and Jay Gould. 



GEOGRAPHY. 27 

1892. Labor troubles at Homestead, Pennsylvania. 

1892. Ex-President Grover Cleveland re-elected, 
after a vacation of one term. 

1893. Deaths of Benjamin F. Butler and John E. 
Kenna. 



(£eograpi)y. 



1. Geography is a description of the earth. 

2. Physical Geography treats of the natural divis- 
ions of the earth's surtace, [of the air, of the planets, 
and of the animals. 

3. Mathematical Geography treats of the earth as 
a planet of the solar system, and how to represent the 
earth's surface on maps and globes. 

4. Political Geography treats of the earth as di- 
vided by man, and of the nations on the earth, as to 
their governments and laws, their moral and social 

ndition, their language, their religion and national 
customs. 

5. A Planet is a spherical body revolving around 
the sun, and receiving heat and light from it. 

6. A Primary Planet is one which revolves around 
the sun as a center. 

7. A Secondary Planet is one which revolves 
around a primary planet. 

8. The Principal Planets named : (l.)ln their order 
from the sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, 
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; (2.j In order of their sizes, 
Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, 
Mars, Mercury. 



GEOGRAPHY. 

9. The Orbit of a planet is the path it describes 
around the sun. The earth's orbit is called the Eclip- 
tic. 

SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 

10. The Shape of the Earth is that of a globe, ball, 
or sphere. The earth is not a perfect sphere ; it is flat- 
tened at the poles, the polar diameter being twenty- 
six miles less than the equatorial diameter. 

11. Proofs of the Earth's Sphericity. 
(1.) It has been circumnavigated. 

(2.) The appearance of approaching objects. 

(3.) The circular shape of the horizon. 

(4.) It casts a circular shadow on the moon dur- 
ing an eclipse of the moon. 

(5.) By actual measurement it has been found to 
be that of an oblate spheroid. 

(6.) All other planets are globular. 

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

12. The Earth has two Motions, — one diurnal on its 
own axis, and one'annual around the sun. Day and 
night proceed from the first motion, and the four sea- 
sons from the second. 

The central line of the earth's rotation is called its 
axis. The ends of the axis are called po^es. ^ 

The earth's axis is inclined 23^ degrees from a 
perpendicular to the ecliptic. 

CIRCLES OF THE EARTH. 

13. Circles of the earth are imaginary lines passing 
around it. The earth is divided into two^equal parts 
by great circles. All circles that divide the earth 
into two unequal parts are called small circles, as the 
parallels. 



GEOGRAPHY. 29 

14. The Equator is a great circle encompassing the 
globe from east to west, midway between the poles. 

15. The Meridian Circles are great circles passing 
around the earth from north to south through the 
poles. 

16. Meridians are aemicircles of longitude, drawn 
from one pole to the other. 

17. Parallels of Latitude are circles drawn around 
the earth parallel to the equator. 

18. The Arctic Circle is a parallel 2Si degrees from 
the North Pole. 

19. The Antarctic Circle is a parallel 2^ degrees 
from the South Pole. 

20. The Tropics are parallels which mark the high- 
est latitude which recives the vertical rays of the sun. 
They are located 23^ degrees from the equator. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 

21. Latitude is distance measured north and south 
of the equator. 

22. Longitude is the distance east or west of an 
established meridian. It is measured 180 degrees 
east and west of the prime meridian. 

ZONES. 

23. Zones are belts or divisions of the earth's sur- 
face, parallel to the equator. 

24 The Torrid Zone is 47 degrees wide, and lies be- 
tween the northern and southern limits of the tropics. 

25. The Temperate Zones lie, one north between the 
Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, and one south 
between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic 
Circle. They are each 43 degrees wide. 

26. The Frigid Zones lie, one north between the 
North Pole and the Arctic Circle, and one south be- 



30 GEOGRAPHY. 

tween the South Pole and the Antarctic Circle. They 
are each 23| degrees wide, 

GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

27. The Horizon is the point where the earth and 
sky seem to meet. 

28. The Horizon Circle is the line which bounds our 
view on the earth's surface. 

29. The Zenith is the point directly overhead. 

30. The Nadir is the point directly under the place 
where we stand. 

31. Antipodes are persons who live on the opposite 
side of the earth from us. 

32. Equinoctial Points are points where the sun 
crosses the equator. The word Equinox means equal 
nights. The vernal equinox occurs the 20th of March ; 
the autumnal equinox on the 22d of September. 

38. The Solstitial Points are the northern and south- 
ern limits of the sun. The summer solstice occurs on 
the 21st of June, and the winter solstice on the 21st of 
December. 

34. Islands are bodies of land smaller than con- 
tinents, entirely surrounded by water. 

85. Continental Islands are those lying near the 
shores of the continents. 

36. Oceanic Islands are those lying far from the 
shores of the continents. 

37. Volcanic Islands are those which have been 
formed by volcanoes. 

38. Coral Islands are those which have been formed 
by coral animals. 

39. A Peninsula (pene, almost, insula, an island) is 
a portion of land almost surrounded by water. 



GEOGRAPHY. 31 

40. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land uniting 
two larger portions of land. 

41. A Cape is a point of land jutting out into the sea. 

42. A Plain is a great extent of land slightly raised 
above the ocean. 

43. A Plateau is a plain one thousand feet or more 
above the level of the sea. 

44. A Prairie is a large, treeless plain, found in the 
United States. 

45. A Pampas is a large, treeless plain, found in the 
south-eastern part of South America, in the valley of 
the La Plata. 

46. The Llanos are plains of the Orinoco River. 
They are covered with verdure in the rainy season, 
and in the dry season they are barren. 

47. Silvas are extensive plains in the valley of the 
Amazon River. 

48. A Desert is a barren tract of land, usually cov- 
ered with sand. 

49. An Oasis is a fertile spot in a desert. 

50. An Ocean is the largest natural division of water. 

51. A Sea is a large body of water smaller than an 
ocean. 

52. A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land. 

53. A Grulf or Bay is a portion of water extending 
into the land. 

54. A Strait is a narrow passage of water joining 
two larger portions of water. 

55. A Bank is a shallow part of the sea. 

56. The Oceanic Movements are waves, tides, and cur- 
rents. 

57. Waves are the rise and fall of the ocean waters, 
caused by the wind. 



32 GEOGRAPHY. 

58. Tides are the periodical risings and fallings of 
the waters of the ocean, caused by the unequal attrac- 
tions of the sun and the moon. 

59. Ocean Currents are vast streams of water flow- 
ing through the ocean. They are produced by the 
combined action of the heat of the sun, the rotation of 
the earth, and the tides and winds. 

60. The Great Equatorial Current is the most im- 
portant of the ocean currents. It is a broad stream of 
warm water, and flows constantly on both sides of the 
equator. 

61. The Atlantic Equatorial Current flows from the 
western coast of Africa towards America. It divides 
into two branches, one flowing south along the coast 
of Brazil, and the other flowing north-west into the 
Caribbean Sea, and thence, passing around the Gulf of 
Mexico, it is finally driven through the Florida Strait, 
where it receives the name of the Gulf Stream. 

62. The Gulf Stream flows north-east from Florida 
Strait to Newfoundland, where it turns and divides 
into tw^o branches. One of these branches flows to- 
wards Great Britain, and thence to Norway ; the other, 
passing around the Azores, unites with the Equatorial 
Current. 

63. The Pacific Equatorial Current flows west from 
South America to Asia. It divides into two branches. 
One of these branches flows along the coast of New 
Guinea and Australia, and passes into the Antarctic 
Current ; the other branch flows north-east along the 
coast of Asia to the Aleutian Islands, and thence pass- 
es down the coast of America to California. This is 
called th© Jajpan Current. 



GEOGRAPHY. 33 

64. A River is a large stream of water flowing in a 
channel to the sea, a lake, or another river. 

65. A River System consists of a number of rivers 
emptying into the same body of water. 

66. A River Basin is the entire area drained by a 
river and its branches. 

67. A Delta is the land enclosed between the 
mouths of a river. They are formed by the deposit of 
mud and sediment carried down by the river. 

68. A Firth, or Estuary, is the open or wide mouth 
of a river. 

69. A Spring is water issuing spontaneously from 
the earth. 

70. Thermal Springs discharge hot water, and are 
caused by the streams of water in the earth coming 
in contact with heated portions of the earth's crust, 
which converts part of the water into steam, thus caus- 
ing the water to pass through its channels with such 
force that vast columns of water are sometimes thrown 
many feet above the surface of the earth. 

71. Geysers are thermal springs, the waters of which 
are sometimes thrown hundreds of feet above the sur- 
face of the earth. 

72. Artesian Wells are artificial springs made by 
boring through the crust of the earth, until a reser- 
voir of water is reached whose source is higher than 
the surface at the point of boring. The water flows 
through the opening to the surface of the earth, and 
is often thrown in a continuous jet with great force. 

73. The Atmosphere is the elastic gaseous substance 
which surrounds the earth to the height of about fifty 
miles. 

74. Wind is air in motion. It is caused by the 



34 GEOGRAPHY. 

unequal heating of the atmosphere. Winds are classi- 
fied as Permanent, Variable, and Periodical. 

75. Trade Winds are formed within the tropics, and 
blow in a westerly direction throughout the year. 
They received their name from the assistance they 
rendered to trade, before the invention of steamers. 

76. Climate is the condition of the atmosphere as 
to temperature, winds, moisture, and salubrity. 

77. Dew is the moisture which gathers upon veg- 
etation and other bodies during the clear summer 
nights. 

78. Clouds are formed from the condensed vapors 
rising from the earth, and differ from fog only in oc- 
cupying higher regions of the atmosphere. 

79. Rain. — When the w^atery vapor in the clouds is 
condensed, it falls to the earth in the form of rain. 

80. Snow is vapor suddenly condensed into a semi- 
solid state by freezing. 

81. Hail is formed out of rain-drops that freeze as 
they fall through colder regions of the atmosphere. 
Several theories have been advanced respecting the 
formation of hailstones. The rotary theory is, that a 
snow-flake being formed is carried, as in a cyclone, 
down into the moist, warm air, where it receives a 
layer of moisture, and then back into the cold, when 
it is frozen. This process alternates in cold and warn) 
air, until layer after layer being added, the stone thus 
formed becomes too heavy to be carried by the rotating 
wind, and falls to the earth. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 35 



pl^ysiology. 



1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature are the mineral, 
the vegetable, and the animal. 

2. Organic Bodies are those having organs by 
which they grow ; as, plants and animals. 

3. Inorganic Bodies are those which are naturally 
destitute of life ; as, air, water, minerals. 

4. An Organ is a portion of an organized body, 
having some special function, or duty. 

5. Anatomy treats of the structure, form, number, 
and position of the organs of the body. 

6. Physiology treats of the functions, or duties, of 
the different organs. 

7. Hygiene is that department of knowledge which 
treats of the preservation of health. 

8. A System is several organs similar in structure 
taken together. 

9. The Bones are the frame work of the body, and 
.serve (1.) to preserve the shape of the body; (2.) to 
protect some important organs; and (3.) to furnish a 
firm surface for the attachment of the muscles. 

10. The Bones are Composed of animal matters and 
mineral matters. 

11. Ossification is the process by which animal 
matter (jelly) is changed into bone by the deposition 
of calcareous matter. 

12. The Periosteum is a fibrous membrane covering 
the exterior surface of the bones, except at the joints. 



36 PHYSIOLOGY. 

13. The Membranes of the body are divided into the 
mucous and the serous membranes. 

14. Mucous Membranes line all the cavities and 
passages of the body which have external communi- 
cation, and are continuous with the skin, and with 
each other. 

15. Serous Membranes line all the cavities of the 
body which are without any external communica- 
tion. 

16. Muscles are animal tissues, usually known as 
lean meat. There are more than five hundred muscles 
in the human body. 

17. A Tendon is a hard and strong cord by which 
a muscle is attached to a bone. 

18. The Skin is the natural covering of the body, 
and is the organ of touch. It is composed of two 
layers, — the epidermis and dermis. 

19. A Grland is an organ which secretes nnd pours 
forth a liquid which passes out through tubes. 

20. The Glands of the Skin are of two kinds, — the 
sweat glands, and the sebaceous, or oil glands. 

21. A Sweat Gland consists of a tube, which is 
coiled into a ball, ascending to the surface of the skin. 
The secretion is called sweat, or perspiration. 

22. The Sebaceous Glands (oil glands) are found in 
the dermis, usually about the roots of the hair, being 
most abundant in the scalp and face. They secrete 
an oily substance, which annoints the hair and keeps 
the skin soft and moist. 

23. Digestion is the process by which food in the 
alimentary canal is so changed that it can be absorbed 
by the lymphatics and the blood-vessels. 

24. The Organs of Digestion are the mmtth, tongue, 



PHYSI0L0C4Y. 37 

teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, (.esophagus, stomach, intes- 
tines, lacteals, thoracic duct, liver, and pancreas. 

25. The Teeth in man are of two sets, — the tempo- 
rary (twenty in nunaber) and the permanent (thirty- 
two in number). Most all animals are provided with 
two sets of teeth. 

26. The Salivary Glands consist of three glands on 
each side of the mouth. They secrete a liquid called. 
saliva. 

27. The Pharynx, or throat, is a muscular, mem- 
braneous sac, about four inches long, leading to the 
oesophagus. 

28. The (Esophagus, or gullet, is a muscular tube,, 
about nine inches long, extending from the pharynx 
to the stomach. 

29. The Stomach is a large pouch, situated in the 
left side of the abdomen, and extending from the 
oesophagus to the small intestine. It will hold from 
one to two quarts ; but it may be distended so as to- 
hold as much as three quarts. 

80. The Intestines are a tube about thirty feet in 
length, filling a greater part of the abdomen. They 
are divided into the small intestine and the la;rge intes- 
tine. 

31. The Lacteals f^re small tubes, or vessels, for con- 
veying chyle from the intestines to the thoracic duct. 

32. The Thoracic Duct commence^ just below the 
diaphragm, and ascends in front of the spinal column 
to the apex of the chest, where it turns downward 
and forward, and ends in the left sub clavian vein. It 
is about the diameter of a goose-quill. 

33. The Liver is the largest and busiest gland of 



38 PHYSIOLOGY. 

the body. It is of a reddish brown color, tinged with 
yellow. Its principal function is to secrete bile. 

34. The Pancreas is a gland about six inches long, 
situated behind the stomach. It secretes pancreatic 
juice. 

35. The Processes of Digestion are (1.) mastication 
and insalivation, (2.) deglutition (swallowing), (3.) 
chymification, (4.) chylification, and (5.) absorption. 
1. The food is taken into the mouth, where it is ground 
fine by the teeth and mixed with the saliva — (mastica- 
tion and insalivation). 2. It then passes from the mouth 
through the pharynx and the oesophagus into the stom- 
ach — {deglutition). 3. In the stomach it is thoroughly 
mixed with the gastric juice, which converts it into a 
pulpy substance of a dark color, called chyme — (chymi- 
ficatioyi). 4. It then pMSses through the pyloric orifice 
into the small intestine, where it is subjected to the 
intestinal juice, the bile, and the pancreatic fluid, 
which finish the dissohuion of all nutritive food, and 
change it into a milky-like fluid called chyle — (chylifi- 
cation). 5. The chyle is absorbed from the small in- 
testine by the lacleals and the blood-vessels, and the 
lacteals pour thf^ir contents into the thoracic duct, 
which leads to the sub-clavian vein — (absorption). 

36. Circulation is the regular flow of the blood 
through the difierent blood-vessels of the body. 

37. The Blood is the circulating fluid of the body. 
It is made uj. of a transparent fluid called plasma^ and 
minute circular bodies called corpuscle>i, which float in 
the plasma. The corpuscles are^of two kinds, — the red 
and the ir hi. If'. 

38 The Organs of Circulation are*the heart, arteries^ 
veins, aud mjiUbiries. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 39 

39. The Heart is a hollow muscular organ, situated 
between the lungs in the thorax. In the adult man it 
is about the size of the closed fist. It is divided by a 
muscular partition into two chambers, the right and 
the left heart. Each chamber is divided into two cav- 
ities, the auricle and the ventricle. 

40. The Arteries are tough cylindrical tubes which 
convey the blood from the heart to difierent parts of 
the body. 

41. The Veins are cylindrical tubes which carry 
the blood from the different parts of the body to the 
heart. 

42. The Capillaries are minute blood-vessels which 
connect the termination of the arteries with the com- 
mencement of the veins. 

43. The Course of the Circulation: The dark, im- 
pure blood is forced from the right ventricle into the 
pulmonary artery, and thence to the capillaries of the 
lungs. After being purified in the lungs, it is conveyed 
through the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then 
through the mitral valves into the left ventricle. This 
is called the indmonary circulation. 

By a contraction of the left ventricle the blood 
passes through the aortic semilunar valves into the 
aorta; and through its branches the blood is conveyed 
to all parts of the body, from which it returns through 
the capillaries and veins to the right auricle. This is 
called the systemic circulation. 

44. The Organs of Respiration are (1.) the air-pass- 
ages, through which the air enters and leaves the 
lungs ; (2.) the htngs, in which the blood is exposed to 
the action of the air; and (3.) certain muscles used 
in breathing. 



40 PHYSIOLOGY. 

45. The Air Passages include the nostril chamherSy 
the pharynx (throat), the larynx, the trachea, the 
bronchia, and the air-cells. 

46. The Lungs are two in number, and lie inside 
the thorax (chest), one on each side of the heart. 
They are elastic, spongy masses, full of tiny cavities^ 
called air-cells. 

47. The Diaphragm is a thin, broad, circular parti- 
tion, separating the abdomen from the chest. 

48. Respiration is the breathing of air into (inspi- 
ration) and out of (expiration) the lungs. 

49. The Nervons System is composed of the hrain^ 
the spinal cord, the ganglionic system, and the nerves. 

50. The Brain is the great center of the nervous 
system, and it is the seat of the mind. It is a pulpy 
mass found in the cavity of the skull, and is made up 
of two parts, — the cerebrum, which occupies the upper 
and anterior parts of the cranium, and the cerebellum, 
the lower and smaller portion. 

51. The Spinal Cord is the cylindrical long mass of 
nerve-matter found in the spinal canal. It extends 
from the pons to the second lumbar vertebra. 

52. The Pons is the bridge of nerve fibres connect- 
ing the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord. 

53. The Mednlla Oblongata is the upper enlarged 
part of the spinal cord. It is about one inch long, 
and lies within the skull. 

54. The Sympathetic System (Ganglionic) consists 
of two nerves, one on each side, containing many 
ganglia. They extend the whole length of the spinal 
column. 

55. Nerves are small white cords of nervous mat- 
ter, used to conduct the nervous influence. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 41 

56. The Organs of Special Sense are the tongue, the 
nose, the ear, the eye, and the skin. 



(£tt)il (Borernment 



1. Government is the organized power by which a 
State or nation is ruled. 

2. Civil Government is the power which regulates 
the rights and duties of the citizens of a country. 

3. General Forms of Government. 

(1.) Monarchy, or government by one person. 

(2.) Aristocracy, or government by a few select per- 
sons. 

(3.) Democracy, or government by the people. 

4. Kinds of Monarchies. 

(1.) Absolute Monarchy, where the power is unlim- 
ited. 

(2.) Limited Monarchy, where the power is limited 
by law. 

5. Kinds of Democracies. 

(1.) Pure or Absolute Democracy, where all the 
voters meet together to make and execute their laws. 

(2.) Representative Democracy, or Republic, where 
the voters choose representatives to make and exe- 
cute their laws, 

6. Departments of Government. 

(1.) Legislative, or law-making. 
(2.) Executive, or law-enforcing. 
(3.) Judicial, or law-interpreting. 



42 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

7. Kinds of Colonial Government. 

(1.) Provincial or Royal (jovernment, or that under 
the direct control of the king, as in New York and 
the Carolinas. 

(2.) Proprietary (jovernment, or that in which cer- 
tain person, called proprietors, exercised the power, 
as in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. 

(3.) Charter (jovernment, or that in which limited 
powers and rights were vested in the colonists, by a 
charter from the king, as in Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island, and Connecticut. 

8. A Charter is a grant made by a sovereign to a 
people, securing to them the enjoyment of certain 
rights ; or it is the fundamental law of a country. It 
differs from a constitution in being granted by a sov- 
ereign, and not established by the people. 

9. A Constitution is the fandamental law of a coun- 
try, setting forth the principles upon which the gov- 
ernment is founded, the rights of the citizens, and the 
manner in which the governmental powers are organ- 
ized, distributed, and administered. 

10. A Preamble is the introductory part of a consti- 
tution or a statute, and contains a declaration of the 
designs or motives of the framers. 

11. Periods of the United States Government. 

(1.) The Revolutionary, extending from the time of 
the meeting of the first Continental Congress, Septem- 
ber 5, 1774, to the final ratification of the Articles of 
Confederation, March 1, 1781. 

(2.) The Confederate, extending from 1781 to 1789, 
when the present Constitution went into operation. 

(3.) The Constitutional, extending from 1789 to the 
present time. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 43 

12. The Declaration of Independence was a document 
in which the Thirteen English Colonies of America 
declared themselves free and independent. By its 
adoption by the Continental Congress, July 4, 1776, 
these colonies became the Thirteen United States of 
America. 

13. The Articles of Confederation was the constitu- 
tion or body of laws by which the United States were 
governed from 1781 to 1789. They were adopted by 
Congress in 1777, but they did not go into effect un- 
til 1781. 

14. The Constitutional Convention met at Philadel- 
phia (1787) to revise the Articles of Confederation, but 
it was found that they contained too many defects for 
a successful revision. They gave not enough power to 
Congress to make it a strong central government, and 
left the States almost sovereign and independent. Con- 
gress could not collect a dollar, enlist a single soldier, 
nor regulate commerce. It could suggest, but it could 
not compel. The convention abandoned the original 
purpose, and prepared an entirely new constitution, 
the Federal Constitution, which was adopted in 1787. 

15. Purposes of the Federal Constitution, 

(1.) To form a more perfect union. 

(2.) To establish justice. 

(3.) To insure domestic tranquillity. 

(4.) To provide for the common defense. 

(5.) To promote the general welfare. 

(6.) To secure the blessings of liberty to the people. 

16. The Legislative Department—all legislative powd- 
ers vested in a Congress of the United States, which 
consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. 



44 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

1 7 . Representatives . 

(1.) Chosen by the people every second year. 

(2.) Necessary qualifications — not less than twenty- 
five years of age, seven years a citizen, and must be 
an inhabitant of the State in which he shall be chosen. 

(3.) Apportioned according to population. 

(4.) Vacancies — filled by a special election. 

18. Senators. 

(1.) Number — two from each State. 

(2.) Term of office — six years. 

(3.) Elected by the State Legislatures of the respect- 
ive States. 

(4.) Necessary qualifications — must have attained 
to the age of thirty years, must have been nine years 
a citizen of the United States, and must be an inhab- 
itant of the State for which he is chosen. 

(5.) Vacancies in the Senate are filled by an appoint- 
ment made by the governor, if the Legislature is not 
in session. 

19. The Vice-President of the United States is Pres- 
ident of the Senate. 

20. An Impeachment is a written accusation charg- 
ing a civil officer of the United States with treason, 
bribery, or other high crime or misdemeanor. 

Remark. — The House of Representatives has the 
sole power to prepare articles of impeachment, but the 
Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the 
Chief-justice presides. A two-thirds vote is necessary 
to convict. Judgment extends no farther than to re. 
moval from office, and disqualification to hold and 
enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the 
United States ; but the offender may afterwards be 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 45 

brought to trial and punishment in a court of law, 
the same as any private citizen. 

21. Revenue Bills are bills by which money is raised 
for the government. They must originate in the House 
of Representatives. 

22. Customs, or Duties, are taxes levied upon cer- 
tain articles imported from foreign countries. The 
taxation of exports is prohibited by the Constitution. 

23. A Tariff is a schedule of dutiable goods, with 
the rate upon each article. 

24. A Direct Tax is one levied directly at a given 
rate on property or polls. 

25. An Indirect Tax is one levied on articles of con- 
sumption. 

26. An Excise {internal revenue) is a tax on articles 
manufactured and used within the country, and also 
on various kinds of business. 

27. Naturalization is the legal process by which an 
alien or foreigner may become a citizen of the United 
States. 

Process : He must appear in court, declare his in- 
tention to become a citizen, and his purpose to re- 
nounce all allegiance to foreign governments ; and 
after two years he must re-appear in open court, and 
make oath or affirm that he renounces all foreign 
allegiance, and will support the Constitution of the 
United States. He must have resided in the United 
States for, at least, five years next preceding the date 
of his final appearance in court. 

28. The High Seas include the waters of the ocean 
which are out ©f sight of land, also the waters of the 
sea-coast below low-water mark, whether within the 
boundaries of a nation or state. 



46 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

29. Letters of Marque and Reprisal are commis- 
sions from the government, authorizing private indi- 
viduals to seize the property of a foreign state, or of 
its citizens or subjects, as a satisfaction for an injury 
committed. 

30. A Writ of Habeas Corpus is a writ issued by a 
court, directed to a person charged with detaining 
another unlawfully in his custody, commanding him 
to bring the body of the prisoner into court, and to 
show cause of his detention. 

31. A Bill of Attainder is an act of a legislative 
body, inflicting the penalty of death upon a person 
accused of crime, without a regular trial before a 
court. 

32. An Ex-post-facto Law is one passed after the act 
to which it refers has been committed, making the 
act criminal, which was not so when committed. 

33. Executive Department — vested in a President of 
the United States. 

34. The Electoral College consists of the whole body 
of electors chosen by the people of the respective 
states, to vote for President and Vice-President. 

35. The President. 

(1.) Commander-in-chief of the United States army 
and navy. 

(2.) Term of oflice — four years. 

(3.) Elected by the Electoral College (since 1887, 
second Monday in January). 

(4.) His necessary qualifications — natural born cit- 
izen, at least thirty-five years of age, and fourteen 
years a resident of the United States. 

(5.) The Vice-President succeeds him, in case of a 
vacancy. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 47 

(6.) The Presidential Succession Law of 1886 pro- 
vides that the members of the Cabinet succeed each 
other in the following order : Secretary of State, Sec- 
retary of Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Postmaster-General, Secretary of Navy, Secreta- 
ry of Interior, and Secretary of Agriculture. 

36. Judicial Department is vested in one Supreme 
Court (established by the Constitution) and two reg- 
ular inferior courts, the Circuit and District Courts, 
and a number of other courts for certain purposes, 
established by Congress. 

Remark. — The Supreme Court consists of one 
Chief-Justice and eight associate judges. The United 
States is divided into nine judicial circuits, and the 
nine judges of the Supreme Court are each assigned 
to one of these divisions ; and for each circuit there is 
also appointed a circuit judge. The lowest regular 
court in the federal system is the District Court. 
There is at least one district for each state, but some 
states are divided into two districts, and have a judge 
for each. New York and Texas are each divided into 
three judicial districts. The entire Union contains 
about sixty of these districts. 

37. Federal Judges. 

(1.) How chosen — nominated by the President and 
confirmed by the Senate. 

(2.) Term of office — during good behavior, but may 
retire on salary, at the age of seventy years, after hav- 
ing served ten years. 

(3. ) Salaries — Chief- Justice, $10,500 per year ; Asso- 
ciate Justices, $10,000; Circuit Judges, $6,000; Dis- 
trict Judges, from $3,500 to $5,000. 



48 BOOK-KEEPING. 



3ook=-^eeping. 



1. Book-keeping is the science of accounts, and the 
art of recording business transactions. 

2. Single Entry Book-keeping is that system in which 
only one entry, a debit or a credit, is usually made in 
the Ledger for a single business transaction, accounts 
being kept usually with persons only. 

3. Double Entry Book-keeping is that system in which 
at least two entries, a debit and a credit, are made for 
a single business transaction, accounts being kept 
with persons, and also with everything that affects the 
financial workings and condition of the business. 

4. An Account is a statement of business transac- 
tions. 

5. Resources, or Assets^ are available means, and 
comprise all kinds of property or anything from which 
value may be realized, such as Cash, Merchandise, 
Real Estate, Notes, and Debts due from others. 

6. Liabilities are obligations to pay, and comprise 
all personal Debts, Notes, or other obligations requir- 
ing payment to others. 

7. Capital is money or property used for carrying 
on a business. 

8. Net Capital is the excess of resources over liabil- 
ities. 

9. Net Insolvency is the excess of liabilities over re- 
sources. 

10. Net Gain is the excess of net capital at closing 
over net capital at beginning. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 49^ 

11. Net Loss is the excess of net capital at beginning 
over net capital at closing. 

12. A Transaction is the act of buying or selling. 

13. A Debtor is one who owes another. 

14. A Creditor is one who is owed by another. 

15. Debit means to charge with debt. The term is 
also applied to that side of an account which shows 
what is owed, or the debtor side. 

16. Books used in Single Entry.— The Day Book and 
the Ledger are the principal books used in Single En- 
try ; but where the business is extensive, the Cash 
Book, Bill Book, Invoice Book, Sales Book, etc., are 
also generally used. These are termed auxiliary books. 

17. The Day Book is a book of original entry in 
which transactions requiring a debit or a credit are 
recorded in the order of their occurrence. 

18. The Ledger is the final book of entry, or the 
book in which all sums entered in books of original 
entry are arranged under appropriate titles, or under 
their proper heads. 

19. The Cash Book is the book in which all receipts 
and payments of cash are entered. 

20. The Bill Book is the book used for recording all 
promissory notes, and other written obligations, re- 
ceived or issued. 

21. The Invoice Book is the book used for preserving 
invoices of goods bought. 

22. The Sales Book is the book in which a record of 
all sales is kept. 

23. The Journal is a book used in Double Entry for 
recording transactions first written in the Day Book, 
the Sales Book, or the Invoice Book. It is the inter- 
mediate book between these books and the Ledger.. 



50 BOOK-KEEPING. 

Its office is to decide upon the proper debits and cred- 
its involved in each transaction, preparatory to their 
going upon the Ledger. 

24. The Journal Day Book. — The essential facts 
commonly recorded in the Day Book may be written 
in the Journal, so as to make the Journal serve the 
double purpose of the two books. The book thus 
used is called by some authors the Journal Day Book ; 
but in business it is called either the Day Book or the 
Journal. 

25. Posting is the process of transferring accounts 
from the Journal, or from books of original entry, to 
the Ledger. 

26. Books of Original Entry are those which con- 
tain statements in detail of business transactions. 
The Day Book is the principal book of original entry. 

27. Opening Books is making such entries as are 
necessary to show the condition of affairs at the time 
of beginning business. 

28. Closing Books is making such entries as are 
necessary to show the condition of the business, or 
the financial condition of an individual or a firm. 

29. The Classes of Accounts are (1.) Personal Ac- 
counts, or those kept with persons, firms, or corpora- 
tions ; (2.) Real Accounts, or accounts kept with 
property of an}^ kind, as, Cash, Merchandise, Real 
Estate, Bills Receivable, Bills Payable, etc.; (3.) Im- 
aginary Accounts, or accounts to which fictitious 
titles are applied to represent the person or persons 
conducting the business, or to supply the want of a 
real name. Stock, Expense, and Interest accounts 
belong to this class of accounts, 

30. Titles of Accounts are the names by which ac- 



BOOK-KEEPING. 51 

counts are known. In Single Entry, accounts are 
usuall}^ kept with persons only. Sometimes a Cash 
account, a Merchandise account, a Bills Receivable 
account, a Bills Payable account, or an Expense ac- 
count is kept in a Single Entry Leger ; but when such 
is the case it ceases to be purely Single Entry, and 
approaches Double Entry, although it lacks many of 
the valuable features of Double Entry. 

31. Personal Aceoiints are acciounts kept with per- 
sons or firms. The name of each person or firm is 
the title of the account. 

32. Stock is a title employed to represent the per- 
son or firm conducting the business. 

33. Merchandise embraces all the usual articles of 
tra.de ; as, Dry Goods, Groceries, Hardware, Wheat, 
Flour, etc. A separate account may be kept with an}^ 
kind of merchandise, by giving the class its proper 
title. 

34. Cash includes all cash items ; as, Specie, Bank 
Bills, Bank Checks, Sight Drafts, etc. 

35. Bills Receivable include all written promises of 
others, payable at a future time, which come into our 
possession, and on which we are entitled to receive 
payment ; as, Notes, Drafts, Acceptances, etc. 

36. Bills Payable include all our written promises 
issued to others, payable at a future time. 

37. Expense is the title of the account under which 
we enter all amounts expended for carrying on the 
business ; as. Rent, Freight, Salaries, Fuel, etc. 

38. Profit and Loss is the title of the account which 
shows the profits and losses in business. The debit 
side contains the losses^ the credit side the gains ; and 
the difference shows the net gain or the net loss. 



52 TEACHING. 

39. General Rules for Journalizing. 

Rule 1. The Proprietor is credited for the sum of 
his resources at the beginning of business, for all 
subsequent investments, and for his net gain in the 
business. 

Rule 2. The Proprietor is debited for the sum of 
his liabilities at the beginning of business, for what 
he draws from the business, and for his net loss in 
the business. ^ 

Rule 3. Persons are debited when they become in- 
debted to us, or when we get out of their debt. 

Rule 4. Persons are credited when we become in- 
debted to them, or when they get out of our debt. 

Rule 5. Property (Cash, Merchandise, Bills Pay- 
able, Bills Receivable, etc.) is debited Yfhen we receive 
it, and credited when we part with it. 



Ccact)tng» 



1. Education is the process of securing rational free- 
dom through the subordination of the powers of the 
mind and the organs of the body, to the laws of rea- 
son and morality. 

2. The Kinds of Education.— The process of educa- 
tion is generally divided into Physical, Intellectual^ and 
Moral education. 

3. Physical Education is that which pertains to the 
body, and has for its object the proper training of 
every power of the body for the attainment of health, 
strength, skill, grace, and beauty. 



TEACHING. 53 

4. Intellectual Education is that which pertains to 
the intellect, and has for its object the training, 
growth, and development of the intellectual powers of 
man. 

5. Moral Education is that which pertains to the 
moral nature of man. Its object is the cultivation of 
the conscience and the subordination of the will to 
one's sense of right and duty. 

6. The Mind is that which thinks, feels, and wills. 
The terms mind and soul are used by some authors as 
synonymous ; others apply the term mind to the in- 
tellect or knowing power of the soul. 

7. Consciousness is the mind knowing itself and its 
own activities and states. 

8. A Mental Faculty is the capability of the mind 
to put forth a distinct form of activity. It is the 
mind's power to act in a definite way. The mind 
possesses as many faculties as there are distinct forms 
of mental activity. 

9. The Mind or Soul embraces three general classes 
of faculties, — the Intellect, the Sensibilities, and the 
Will. 

10. The Intellect is the mind's power to think and 
to know. Its products are ideas and thoughts. It in- 
cludes a number of faculties, — perception, memory, im- 
agination, understanding, and intuition, or the reason. 

11. The Sensibilities are the powers by which we 
feel. Their products are emotions, affections, desires, and 
api^etites. 

12. The Will is the mental activity of choosing and 
determining. It is the executive power of the mind. 

18. Perception is the power of the mind to know 
immediately and directly external objects ; or it is the 



54 TEACHING. 

faculty by which a knowledge of the qualities of ob- 
jects is gained through the senses. 

14. Memory is the power of the mind to retain and 
recall knowledge, or previous acquisitions. 

15. Imagination is the power by which the mind 
holds up before itself the images which are called up 
by recollection; or it is the power of the mind by 
which objects previously known are represented and 
modified, or recombined. 

16. Understanding is the power by which the rela- 
tions of things to each other are determined ; or it is 
the power by which we compare objects of thought and 
derive abstract and general ideas and truths. It em- 
braces Abstraction^ Conception, Judgment, and Reason- 
ing. 

17. Intuition, or the Reason, is that power of the 
mind which makes us acquainted with simple primary 
ideas and truths ; or it is that power by which w^e 
know certain ideas and truths without being taught. 

18. Abstraction is the process by which the mind 
draws a quality awa}^ from its object and makes it an 
object of special consideration. 

19. Conception is the power of forming general no- 
tions. It unites a number of qualities common to 
many individuals, and produces a single complex 
mental representative of all these individuals taken as 
a class. 

20.- Judgment is the power of comparing objects of 
thought or observation, and deciding as to their agree- 
ments or disagreements, their resemblances or differ- 
ences, etc. 

21. Reasoning is the process of comparing two 
ideas through their relation to a third. 



TEACHING. 55 

22. Inductive Reasoning is the process of deriving 
a general trutii from particular truths. Thus, if we 
observe that all perfect apples examined by us have 
five seeds, we may infer that all perfect apples every- 
where will have the same number. 

23. Deductive Eeasoning is the process of deriving 
a particular truth from a general truth. Thus, from 
the general proposition that all perfect apples have 
five seeds, we may infer by deduction that any particu- 
lar perfect apple will have five seeds. 

24. Attention is the concentration of mental energy 
and activity upon any one object of thought. 

Methods of Cultivating Each Faculty. 

25. Perception. — The Perceptive Powers are most 
active in early childhood, and should be carefully cul- 
tivated during this period of life. Since the child ob- 
tains a knowledge of the outside world through the 
five senses, this act of the mind in knowing is often 
called sense-perception. It may be properly called 
the perceptive activity, or the activity of perceiving. 
Nature gives active senses to a little child, therefore 
the perceptive powers are cultivated by training chil- 
dren to a habit of close observation. Children should 
be required to describe objects, and draw their out- 
lines. Since observation is the source of all knowl- 
edge, it is important that children be taught the habit 
of using their perceptive powers. 

26. Tlie Memory.— To cultivate the Memory, (1.) 
Require the pupils to give close attention to the sub- 
ject they are considering ; (2.) Lead them to feel an in- 
terest in the subject ; (3.) Require them to review that 
which they have previously studied; (4.) Require 
them to memorize extracts of prose and poetry; (5.) 



56 TEACHING. 

Teach them to connect their knowledge by the laws 
of association. 

27. The Imagination.— The Imagination may be 
cultivated by observing the beautiful in the scenes of 
nature and art, and b}^ reading poetry, fiction, books 
of travel, and other imaginative compositions. 

28. Attention. — The power of Attention may be 
cultivated, (1.) By requiring the pupils to observe ob- 
jects closely ; (2.) By requiring them to study with 
close attention; (3.) B\^ requiring them to repeat 
problems in mental arthmetic, and give their solutions, 
without the use of a book ; (4.) By requiring them to 
write long sentences from memory. 

29. Educational Laws.— The following are the most 
important of the general laws of education : 

1. The human mind embraces a number of dis- 
tinct faculties. 

2. The faculties of the mind develop in a fixed or- 
de . 

3. Self activity is a law of mental growth. 

4. The mind is both acquisitive and productive. 

5. Human beings are created withMifferent tastes 
and talents. ^ 

6. The human mind is finite. 

30. Principles of Instruction.— The following prin- 
ciples indicate the laws by which the teacher should 
be governed in imparting instruction so that the mind 
of the child may be properly trained and developed : 

1. The })rimary object of teaching is to afford cul- 
ture. 

2. Exercise is necessar}^ to culture. 

3. The perceptive powers should receive early and 
careful culture. 



GRAMMAR. 



57 



4. The order of instruction should correspond to 
the order of growth. 

5. All primary instruction should proceed from the 
known to the most nearly related unknown. 

6. All primary instruction should be given in the 
concrete. 

7. Instruction should first be inductive, then de- 
ductive. 

8. Ideas should first be taught, then words. 



(grammar. 



A Synopsis of the Parts of Speech. 



The Noun. 

f f Class, 

^ I Abstract, 

! Common,-! Collective, 
[ Participial. 



Nouns < 



Properties <( 



f Masculine, 

" I Common, 
(^ Neuter. 

(First, 
Person^ •< Second, 
Third. 



Proper. 



Number 



i Singular, 
■/Plural. 



f Nominative, 
n^o^ J Possessive, 
^'^^^' ] Objective, 

(^Absolute. 



58 



GRAMMAR. 



Adjectives < 



Personal, { 



Pronouns^ Relative,^ 



The Adjective. 

(Common, 
Descriptive, •< Proper, 

tParticipial. 

Definitive. ' (indefiniteo 

! Cardinal, 
Ordinal, 
Multiplicative. 

The Pronoun. 

Simple, < thou, 

f he, she, it. 

(Myself, 
Comp'd. ^thyself, 

(herself, himself, itself. 

fWho, 
I which. 
Simple,^ what, 
I that, 
l^as. 

f Whoever, whoso, 
I whosoever, 
Comp'd. -{ whichever, whichsoev- 
I er, 

1^ whatever, whatsoever. 
(Who, 
Interrogative. ■< which, 
(what. 

f Gender, 

Properties] P~^_ 

Case. 



GRAMMAR. 
The Verb. 



59 



^ Asto use: 
Copulative, 
Transitive, 
Intransitive. 

As to form: 
Regular, 
Irregular. 

Properties < 



Verbs i 



Sub-classes: 
I Defective, 
Redundant, 
iVuxiliary. 



XT . j Active, 
Vo'««' i Passive. 

f Indicative, 
I Subjunctive, 
Mode, { Potential, 
I Imperative, 
1^ Infinitive. 

f Present, 
Absolute, ^Past, 

(Future. 



Tense, < 



I (Pr. Perfect, 

(^Relative. -{Past " 



f Future 



Number, 
Person. 



(Present, 
Participles -(Perfect, 

(Compound. 



The Adverb. 



Adverbs -{ 



fOf Time, 
Of Place, 
Of Cause, 
Of Manner, 
Of Degree. 

ALSO : 

Modal, 

Interrogative, 

Conjunctive. 



60 



GRAMMAR. 



Conjunctions ■< 



The Conjunction. 

r Copulative, 

Co-ordinate \ Adversative, 
CO oramate, \ Alternative, 

I Illative. 



Subordinate. I LoX'"'*^ 



f Causal, 

J Temper 

1 Local, 

I^Of manner or degree. 



Sentences < 



Elements 



A Synopsis of the English Sentence. 

f Declarative, 

(^Exclamatory. 

^Simple, 
As to form, -(Complex, 
(Compound. 

Elements. 

rSimple, 
As to form, •< Complex, 
(Compound. 

(Words, 
As to composition, -< Phrases, 
[Clauses. 



As to rank, < 



r Principal, ^^^_ 

f Objective, 
I Adjective, 
Subordinate. { Adverbial, 
I Connective. 
(^ Attendant. 



GRAMMAR. 61 

TO DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS IN HARVEY's ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The first number indicates the page; the 
second, the number of the sentence, the comment fol- 
lowing the numbers. 

The author's aim is not to give the parsing and the 
analysis in full, but to discuss very briefly only the 
most difficult points. 

42-1. Doctor is in apposition with the first Johnson^ 
and lawyer^ with the second. 

42-2. Queen Elizabeth is in the possessive case, and 
modifies reigyi. Reign is the object of the preposition 
in. 

42-6. Quadrupeds, fowls, fishes, reptiles, and insects, 
are in the objective case, in apposition with classes. 
Classes is neuter gender; quadrupeds, fowls, etc., are 
common gender. 

42-7. Army is neuter, singular. 

42-8. Platos and Aristotles are proper nouns, used 
as common nouns, and are nominative to are. 

42-9. Mr. Squires is in the objective case, object of 
have seen; bookseller and stationer are in apposition 
with Mr. Squires. 

53-3. But a may be parsed as a single adjective, 
modifying vapor. Some authors parse but as an ad- 
verb, modifying is. 

53-5. Sad and lonely are predicate adjectives after 
feel, and limit /. 

53-6. Look is the copula, and green is a predicate 
adjective, limiting the subject ^e^c^s. 



62 GRAMMAR. 

53-11. Such a limits the subject laiv. Disgrace is a 
noun, and is used as the predicate of the sentence. 

53-13. Powers is in the absolute case. Ye is the 
subject of the sentence. 

53-17. No7ie is an adjective used as the subject of 
the sentence. But great equals except great, and modi- 
fies none. Unhappy belongs to great. 

53-18. But a is an adjective ; or but may be parsed 
as an adverb, modifying is. 

53-19. To make a long story short is a complex at- 
tendant element. Short belongs to story. Broke up is 
a complex verb ; or up may be parsed as an adverb. 

54-21. Have been lashed is modified by round and 
round circle, by for years, and by (during) session. 

54-22. Shade is the subject, ,/?t^s is the copula, and 
gray is a predicate adjective, and belongs to shade. Dir)i 
belongs to shade. 

54-23. Back is an adverb, modifying can call. To 
mansion modifies can call. 

54-24. Current is the subject of the principal clause, 
and glides is the predicate. 

62-2. Book is the direct and sister the indirect ob- 
ject of gave. Some grammarians would parse sister, 
and all similar constructions, as the object of the 
preposition to understood. 

62-3. To-day is a noun in the objective case with- 
out a governing word expressed. Some authors sup- 
ply the preposition ; others parse such expressions as 
adverbs of time. 

62-5. Yourself is in the nominative case, in apposi- 
tion with you. 

62-9. On loay modifies see. 

62-10. (To) make and (to) compare are objects of 



GRAMMAR. 63 

dare^ according to some authority ; but the verb 
dare (venture) is not used in a transitive sense in this 
sentence. It is better to parse these infinitives as 
having the construction of adverbs, modifying dare. 
Measuring and comparing modify they. 

62-11. Country is in the absolute case, and land is 
in apposition with country^ or with thee. It is the sub- 
ject, modified by the clause (that) I sing. Some au- 
thors claim that the clause, (that) I sing, is the subject 
of the sentence, and that it is an expletive. Is of thee 
is the predicate. The second of thee is an attendant 
element. 

62-12. Thou great Instructor is a complex attend- 
ant element. Instructor is in apposition with Thou. 
Feet is the indirect object of teach, and ivayis the direct 
object. 

68-3. That is the subject of forsake. As is a rela- 
tive pronoun, and agrees with its antecedent such, or 
persons understood, in gender, person, and number ; it 
is nominative to the verb keep. Some grammarians 
would parse as as a conjunction. 

68-4. There is an expletive adverb. Class is the 
subject, and is, the predicate of the principal clause. 
As is a conjunctive adverb. Those belongs to persons 
understood, and persons understood is the object of the 
verb dislike understood. 

69-6. Whatever is equivalent to anything which, or 
that which. The sentence may read, "Anything which 
is, is right;" or, "That which is, is right." Authors 
differ in their methods of parsing whatever. In fol- 
lowing Harvey, we should parse the antecedent of 
which as nominative to the second is, and which as 
nominative to the first is. 



64 GRAMMAR. 

69-7. Make the sentence read, "That which ye shall 
ask in my name, that will I do." The first that is in 
the absolute case by pleonasm ; and that which ye shall 
ask in my name is a complex attendant element. 

70-6. Whom is in the objective case after (not of) 
to be. Harvey says that a noun or pronoun following 
the infinitive to be^ is in the same case as a word which 
precedes it. 

70-9. Lesson is the subject, and which is the predicate. 

70-10. You is the indirect, and to parse is the direct 
object of the verb told. 

70-2. In the sentence, "I do not know who is in the 
garden," who is an interrogative pronoun, according 
to Harvey ; but some authors would parse who as a 
relative, when used in this sense, agreeing with its an- 
tecedent understood; others would parse it as a re- 
sponsive pronoun, because it is used in making replies 
to questions. The introduction of an antecedent con- 
verts an interrogative into a relative. 

70-3. In the sentence, "Tell me what I should do," 
what may be parsed as an interrogative pronoun, ob- 
ject of should do; or as a double relative, equivalent to 
the thing which, or the things which. 

71-7. Which darkened the room modifies the preced- 
ing clause. 

71-4. Worth is a predicate adjective, and belongs to 
the subject ounce. Ounces is in the objective case with- 
out a governing word expressed ; or the object of a 
preposition understood. Some authors would parse 
worth as a preposition, showing the relation between 
ounces is. 

71-8. Ye understood is the subject. Some prefer 
to make one the subject. One in be parsed as an 



GRAMMAR. 65 

adjective used as a noun, nominative case in appo- 
sition with ye. 

71-9. More is a noun, object of could ask ; or it is an 
adjective, modifying ivhat. 

71-10. Who is the subject, and is is the predicate of 
the principal clause. Base is an adjective, and belongs 
to loho. So is an adverb, modifying base. That is a 
conjunction, followed by he understood. The subor- 
dinate clause modifies base ; or so, according to good 
authority. Would be is the copula, and bondman is 
the predicate. 

71-11. The sentence is equivalent to I sj^eaA; as (7 
uould speak) to wise men. ^s is a conjunctive adverb. 
As to maybe parsed as a complex preposition, unless 
the sentence be changed. What may be parsed as a 
double relative. 

71-12. Theirs is a possessive pronoun, nominative 
case; or it may be parsed as a possessive pronoun, 
equivalent to their right. As is a conjunction, an in- 
dex of apposition (Harvey); or a preposition (Hol- 
brook). The first men is in the possessive case in 
apposition with theirs, or their, if the equivalent of theirs 
be given (Harvey). The second men is in the objec- 
tive case after to be understood (See 70-6) ; or object 
of did esteem. (See Harvey's Grammar, page 154, re- 
mark 3). 

71-13. Philosophizing is a present participle, and 
belongs to Socrates. That cotdd be desired modifies the 
noun death understood. 

71-14. Popidar Applause is a proper noun, by per- 
sonification ; feminine gender, second person, singular 
number, absolute case. 



66 GRAMMAR. 

71-15. The first what modifies cares understood ; 
the second what modifies cares. 

71-16. Room is the direct and relics the indirect ob- 
ject of give. To slumber modifies room. 

71-17. Spirit is the direct object of (to) share. In- 
dependence is a proper noun of the masculine gender, 
second person, singular number : it is in the absolute 
case. Lord is in the absolute case, in apposition with 
Independence. 

71-18. On is an adverb, modifying {yv ill) 2^lod. As 
before is equivalent to as (he did chase) before. Before 
is an adverb, modifjdng did chase understood. As is a 
conjunctive adverb. Yet is a conjunction. 

81-1. Tolling is a present participle, and belongs to 
bells. 

81-2. Opened is a perfect participle, and belongs to 
letter. 

81-3. Gambling is a participial noun ; it is neuter 
gender, third person, singular number, nominative 
case. 

81-4. Running^ jumping and skating are participial 
nouns, objects of the verb like. 

82-6. Having sold is a compound participle, and 
belongs to I. 

82-9. Having been captured belongs to general. 

82-10. Remaining is a participial noun ; it is the 
subject of the sentence. 

82-11. Said and marked are perfect participles, and 
belong to ivords. But is an adverb, and modifies 
once. The second but modifies softly. At all is an ad- 
verbial phrase, modifying the participle marked. 

82-12. Hardened belongs to man. Complete, an ad- 
jective, and announced, sl participle, belong to acquittal. 



GRAMMAR. 67 

82-13. Washing belongs to ripj^le, and lapping be- 
longs to ivater. 

82-14. Toiling, rejoicing, and sorrowing are present 
participles, and belong to he. Attempted belongs to 
something. The second something is in apposition with 
the first, and is modified b}^ the participle done. 

87-20. Kingdom is in apposition with hell. 

88-21. Save is a preposition. / is used for me by 
poetic license. Save the waves and I (me) modifies 
nothing. Some authors would parse save as a subordi- 
nate conjunction, and waves and I as nominative to 
may hear understood. 

112-1. Plowing is a participial noun, object of com- 
menced. 

112-6. Should have been is an irregular, copulative 
verb. 

112-7. Be hallowed is a verb, regular, transitive, 
passive voice, imperative mode, present tense ; it is of 
the third person, singular number, to agree with its 
subject name. (See page 86, remark 3). 

112-9. Todoi^ a verb, irregular, transitive, active 
voice, infinitive mode, present tense, and is the object 
of the verb could learn. 

113-13. Were mustered out may be parsed as a com- 
plex transitive verb ; or out may be parsed as an ad- 
verb. 

113-19. The first two lines form a complex attendant 
element. Law is in the absolute case, by pleonasm. 
(To) trickleis in the infinitive mode, and depends up- 
on it. The second law is nominative to preserves and 
guides. Earth and sphere are objects of preserves. (See 
page 154, remark 3). Some authors claim that sphere 



68 GRAMMAR. 

is in apposition with earth ; others would parse it as a 
noun in the objective case after to be understood. 

113-21. Wisest, brightest, and meanest may be parsed 
as adjectives used as nouns, in apposition with Bacon ; 
or they may be considered adjectives, modifying man 
understood, which is in apposition with Bacon. 

120-1. Happily is an adverb of manner, and modi- 
fies lived. Very is an adverb of degree, and modifies 
happily. 

120-2. Why is an interrogative adverb, and modi- 
fies do look. So is an adverb of degree, and modifies 
sad. Sad is a predicate adjective. 

120-3. Whe7iis a conjunctive adverb'; it connects 
the two clauses, and modifies comes. 

120-5. The7i is an adverb of time, and there is an ad- 
verb of place ; they modify signed. 

120-6. Again and again is an adverbial phrase, and 
modifies have read. 

120-7. So is an adverb of manner, and no more is an 
adverbial phrase, modifying the verb idll do. The 
words forming the phrase may be parsed separately. 

120-9. Perchance is an adverb of manner (Harvey) ; 
of possibility (Quackenbos) ; of doubt (Nash) ; it modi- 
fies are. 

120-10. Whither is an interrogative adverb, and 
modifies has gone. 

120-12. Just is an adverb, and modifies the phrase, 
over the hill yonder, or over hill. 

120-13. Htnceforthi^ an adverb of time ; it modi- 
fies (to) fear. 

120-14. Before is a conjunctive adverb; it modifies 
left. 

120-15. Not is a modal adverb, modifying will be. 



GRAMMAR. 69 

120-16. Not modifies have seen. Since is a con- 
junctive adverb, modifying returned. 

120-17. Doubtless modifies are, or ye are the people. 

125-1. With shows the relation between me and will 
go. Into shows the relation between garden and ivill go. 

125-2. In shows the relation between house and are. 
Mansions is the subject, and are is the predicate. 

125-3. Over shows the relation between river and 
ivent ; through between corn-fields and went ; and into 
between woods and u^ent. 

125-4. As to is a complex preposition ; it shows the 
relation between affair and am satisfied. 

125-5. But shows the relation between Mary and 
all. 

125-6. From among is a complex preposition ; it 
shows the relation between Alps and flows. Out is an 
adverb, modifying /?ow.s. 

125-9. Aboard shows the relation between ship and 
went. 

125-10. (rocZc^ess is in apposition with i\\(//i^. From. 
shows the relation between throne and stretches. In 
shows the relation between majesty and stretches. Over 
shows the relation between world and stretches. 
Stretches forth may be parsed as a complex verb ; or 
forth may be parsed as an adverb, modifying stretches. 

130-1. And is a coordinate conjunction; it con- 
nects am and argue. The second and connects argue 
and convince. 

130-2. Than is a subordinate conjunction; it con- 
nects sooner and the subordinate clause. Or connects 
you and man. 

130-3. But is a coordinate conjunction, and con- 
nects the two members. 



70 GRAMMAR. 

180-4. Xeither and nor are correlative conjunctions ; 
neither introduces the sentence, and nor connects mili- 
tary and civil. Some authors claim that nor connects 
pomp and pomp. 

131-5. That is a subordinate conjunction, introduc- 
ing the predicate clause. 

131-6. Bat is a coordinate conjunction, connecting 
the two members. 

131-7. The adjectives, alone, solitary, and idle, be- 
long to /. And connects solitary and idle. 

131-8. Both and and are correlative conjunctions ; 
both introduces the sentence, and and connects ties 
and dictates. 

131-9. There is an expletive. For connects was and 
the subordinate clause. 

131-10. Than is a subordinate conjunction ; it joins 
the subordinate clause to more ; or to more highly. 

131-11. On and on is a complex adverb, modifying 
marches. Inflicting and suffering are present partici- 
ples, and belong to soldier. 

131-14. As if is a subordinate conjunction, and con- 
nects the two clauses. 

131-17. .4s to be hated, etc., modifies so : or frightfid. 
She understood is the subject of this subordinate 
clause, and /?fPf/.s is the predicate. To be hated is an 
adverbial element, and to be seen is an objective ele- 
m<^nt, modifying needs. But, in the second line, is an 
adverb, modifying to be seen. The second couplet is 
equivalent to ''We, familiar with her face, first en- 
dure, then pity, then embrace, (if she is) seen too oft." 
Endure, pity, and embrace form the compound predi- 
cate. Familiar is an adjective, and belongs to v^e. Oft 
modifies (is) s/'en, and too modifies oft. 



GRAMMAR. 71 

133-4. To freeze limits sight ; or it limits the sub- 
ject it. 

133-11. Whcit and fareicell are interjections. Could 
keep in is a complex verb ; or in may be parsed as an 
adverb. Life is the object of the verb could keep. 

133-3. Far is an adverb, modifying beyond sea. 

133-6. Ohs and ahs are used as nouns ;^they are in 
the objective case. 

133-8. Union is the antecedent of which. 

134-11. The subordinate clause modifies so. 

134-12. But shows the relation between calm, and 
joy. 

134-13. To be kind modifies cruel. Only modifies 
to be kind. Kind and cruel belong to /. Some au- 
thors claim that the phrase to be kind modifies nmst he; 
and that only modifies kind. 

134-15. All over isjan adverbial phrase, modifying 
covers. Thoughts and all are objects of covers under- 
stood. Some authors claim that these words are in 
apposition with man. 

134-16. Many a belongs to morning. Morning is in 
the objective case without a governing word. (To) 
ring depends upon copses. 

134-18. As if is sl subordinate conjunction, and con- 
nects acted and the subordinate clause. 

134-19. Contention is the subject, and to find is the 
predicate, of the first sentence. Mhilst is a conjunctive 
adverb, and modifies is living. The clause, Whilst an 
author is yet living, modifies e.vH'//m/e. 

134-20. Other belo.ngs to it. Other is modified by 
than it is. 

134-21. So and as are correlative conjunctions. As^ 
introduces the subordinate clause. 



GRAMMAR. 



134-22. Like is a preposition, and shows the rela- 
tion between men and delighted. Some authors would 
parse like as an adjective, belonging to he ; and men as 
the object of the preposition to understood. 

134-23. To knoir is nominative to is. To say is the 
object of to knoir. What is a double relative pronoun. 
Poets, saties, martyrs, reformers, and both are in appo- 
sition with men. Some authors consider nouns of 
such construction as in the objective case after the 
infinitive copula to he understood. 

134-24. That done is an abridged proposition, and 
modifies fur?i<?f/ and c/i(7i(/ (Irish); but some authors 
consider this phrase as an attendant element. That 
is in the absolute case with done or (being) done. 
Z)c»7ie belongs to that. As is a relative pronoun; its 
antecedent is smile ; it is the object of the two verbs, 
had seen and f.ould forget. 

134-25. To live is the subject, and to die is the predi- 
cate. Behind is an adverb, modifying leave. Not 
modifies i>'. 

134-26. But is an introductory conjunction. War 
is nominative to is. Which is the object of at. 

131-27. Whoever is equivalent to he loho ; he is the 
subject of the second thinks, and who of the first thinks. 
To see is the object of think-^, and piece is the object of 
to see. 

134-28. Xiohe is in the absolute case by pleonasm. 
Some authors consider Niohe in apposition with she. 
Childless and crownless belong to she. Some authors 
consider stands the predicate ; others consider 
stands the copula, and childless and crownless 
predicate adjectives. /// her voiceless wo s modifies s/i^' 
(Irisb); or stands (Adams); or being understood 



GRAMMAR. 73 

(Eubank). Urn is nominative to is understood 
(Raub) ; or object of the participle /loZcZm^/ understood 
(Irish); or in the absolute case with the participle 
being understood (Adams) ; or the object of has un- 
derstood (Eubank), Ago modifies wat^ scattered, and 
long modifies ago. 

134-29. Back is an adverb, modifying can call. 
Honoris and Death are masculine, and Flattery is femi- 
nine gender. 

135-30. Oidet is the subject, and drops and holds is 
the compound predicate, of the first member. Atheism 
is in apposition with oiy^ef. Sight is in the absolute 
case by exclamation. Sailing is a present participle, 
and belongs to owlet. Forth (an adverb), on ivings, 
athwart noon, from hiding-place, modify sailing. Close 
(closed) may be parsed as an adjective, belonging to 
them; or it may be parsed as an adverb, modifying 
holds. He understood is the subject, and cries out is 
the predicate, of the second member. Out may be 
parsed as an adverb. Where is it is the object of crits 
out, or of cries. Hooting belongs to he understood. 

135-32. Dry is an adverb, modifying c^a^i^-ed. Har- 
ness is the subject of clanked. All (wholly) is an ad- 
verb, modifying the phrases to left and (to) right. 
Some, authors consider all the subject of clanged ; 
others consider it as an adverb, modifying clanged ; 
others parse it as an adjective belonging to cliff. Jets 
is the antecedent of that. Sharp-smitten is a participle, 
modifying that. Some authors parse it as an adjec- 
tive. 

135-33. Shadow is the subject of came ivandering, or 
of came. Some authors parse wandering as a parti- 
ciple in the predicate with came, belonging to shadow ; 



74 GRAMMAR. 

others parse it as an adverb modifying came. Li'ke is a 
preposition, and shows the relation between angel and 
shadow ; or it is an adjective, followed by the prepo- 
sition to understood, and belongs to shadow. With 
shows the relation between hair and angel. Dabbled is 
a participle, and belongs to hair. Oat and aloud are 
adverbs, modifying shrieked. The second word Clar- 
enceis in apposition with the first. Is come equals 
has come. Furies is a proper noun by personification ; 
it is feminine gender, second person, absolute case by 
direct address. 

135-34. There is an expletive in each of the first 
three lines. Weak is an adjective, belonging to heart. 
Like is a preposition, unless comes understood be sup- 
plied ; it then becomes a conjunctive adverb. 

135-35. Record is the object of left ; and columns, 
statues, ruins, streets, and cities are in the same case by 
apposition. Strovm is a participle, and belongs to 
columns. Fallen, cleft, and heaped are participles, and 
belong to statues. Overthrown is a participle, and be- 
longs to host. The first ivhere may be considered a 
conjunctive adverb joining its clause to left ; or it may 
be parsed as a relative adverb (Raub), relating to 
ruins. An adjective clause is sometimes introduced 
by a relative adverb. The second where relaites to 
earth. Of shows the relation of air to breath. 

147-2. Spread level is equivalent to icas level ; spread 
is the copula, and level is the predicate. 

147-4. Lay is the copula, and dying is the predi- 
cate. 

147-6. Ye and ye is the compound subject of de- 
scend (Irish) ; or ye understood is the subject (Ad- 
ams). Some authors parse ye in this sentence as an 



GRAMMAR. 75 

adjective ; others consider it as a pronoun in the ab- 
solute case. Dews and showers should be parsed as ap- 
positives, unless ye is considered an adjective. 

147-11. All modifies village. 

147-13. It is an independent element, and the 
clause is the subject; or it may be called the subject, 
modified b}^ the explanatory clause. 

147-15. Dares is modified by (to) toudu and by 
not, adverbial elements. 

147-19. Till is a preposition. 

148-20. But modifies are ; it is used in the sense of 
only, or merely. 

148-22. A hundred modifies soids ; about is an ad- 
verbial element, modifying a hundred. 

148-24. The clause, how the night behaved, is the 
subject of some verb (is, was, or did matter). What 
modifies matter, as an adjective element ; or ivhat is an 
objective element, if did matter be used as the predi- 
cate. The second line is similar to the first in con- 
struction. 

148-25. The clauses introduced by ivhere modify 
heaven. Bird is an independent element. 

163-1. Behind thee modiefis crags. 

163-7. Has become is the copula. 

164-3. In snow modifies /res/i. 

164-4. Lay low is equivalent to was low, low being 
a predicate adjective. In valley modifies low. 

164-6. Miles is an adverbial element, modifying 
ran. A preposition is understood before miles. 

165-3. It is the subject, and is modified by to see ; 
or it is an independent element, and to see is the sub- 
ject. 

166-4. It, the subject, is modified by the clause, 



76 GRAMMAR. 

ivho the old gentleman loas ; or it is an independent ele- 
ment, and the subordinate clause is the subject. 

167-10. At liberty is the predicate, and is equivalent 
to free. Xoic and to confess are adverbialel ements, 
modifying at liberty. Much is the subject of ivas 
founded^ and is modified by the subordinate clause in- 
troduced by which. Objected modifies which. 

167-15. Worth is equivalent to be. The sentence is 
equivalent to Woe be to the chase! woe be to the day! 

172-2. Aivay and among shoulders are adverbial ele- 
ments, modifying pwrsitet^. 

173-3. The clause, that is not reason, modifies noth- 
ing. 

172-4. Itself modifies Vice. Hcdf and all are ob- 
jective elements. Some authors call them adjective 
elements in this sentence. 

172-5. There is independent. Limit is the subject, 
and is is the predicate, of the principal clause. Limit 
is modified by the subordinate clause, at which forbear- 
ance ceases to be a virtue. Ceases to be is a strengthened 
copula. (See Harvey's Grammar, page 149). To be 
is an adverbial element, modifying ceases. 

172-11. The clause introduced by that modifies 
sure; or it is an adjective element, modifying some 
noun understood, as fact, truth, etc. 

173-15. To be represe^itative modifies lohich. Which 
is the object of found. 

174-9. The phrase introduced by e.rcejH modifies 
girls. The clause beginning with who modifies girls 
understood. 

174-10. The second word taj^ modifies the first, be- 
ing in apposition with it. 

180-18. The first line is equivalent to Theii here is 



GRAMIVIAR. ii 

(a toast) to our boyhood, (to) ita (fold and (to) its gray. 
To is also understood before stars and dews. 

189-22. The clause introduced by that modifies it. 
At time, of family, and the clause, icJto probably imag- 
ines, etc., modify representative. In reality modifies is 
acting. Almost is an adverbial element, modifying 
every. 

189-24. Seem to have been is a strengthened copula, 
seem being modified by to have been, an adverbial ele- 
ment. Like is the predicate. Boy is the object of to 
understood. Playing and diverting are present parti- 
ciples, modifying boy. Than ordinary (pebbles are 
smooth or shells are pretty) modifies smoother and 
prettier. Lay is a copula. All equals wholly, and is an 
adverb, modifying undiscovered. Before me modifies 
lay; or it modifies undiscovered. 

Remark. — In some constructions it is difficult to 
decide upon the relation of the preposition, as in the 
foregoing sentence, in the use of before. There is 
ground for either view. 

189-25. Some is an adjective element, modifying 
we. Up modifies sjrringing. 

189-27. The clause introduced by where modifies 
seeks. 

189-30. Rose and pillar are predicates of the first 
member. Seemed is a copula. Engraven is an adjec- 
tive used as the predicate after the copula sat. 

190-31. Near is an adverb, modifying rose; and (to) 
copse modifies near; or 7iear copse is a prepositional 
phrase, modifying rose. 

Where once the garden smiled modifies copse. Cop)se 
is also modified by the next clause. There and the 
clause following modify rose. Dear and rich modify 



7o GRAINIxMAR. 

man. To countri/ modifies dear. Passing is an adverb- 
ial element, modif3^ing rich. Rich is also modified by 
ivith pounds. Year, or (in) year, is an adverbial ele- 
ment, modifying forty. 

190-32. Words is the subject, and came and went is 
the compound predicate, of the principal clause. Sen- 
ators is the subject, and dream and dream is the com- 
pound predicate, of the clause introduced by those. 
Oaks modifies senators, and branch-charmed modifies 
oaks. So modifies the second word dream. Save from 
is a complex preposition. Off is an adverbial element, 
modifying dies. But is an adverbial element, and 
modifies one. The second word so modifies came and 
we7it. 

190-33. She is the subject, and tore and set is the 
compound predicate, of the principal clause. The 
predicate is modified by the clause, ivhen Freedom un- 
furled, etc. Unfurled is modified by standard, an ob- 
jective element; and by ivhen, from height, and to air, 
adverbial elements. The second word she is the sub- 
ject of mingled, and striped. Baldric is the object of 
mingled, and white is the object of striped. 

Note. — Teachers and students desiring to purchase 
a book containing diagrams of most all the sentences 
in Harvey's English Grammar, are referred to Irish's 
"Grammar and Analysis Made Easy and Attractive by 
Diagrams," sold by the author, Frank V. Irish, A. M., 
Columbus, 0. Those desiring a book containing a 
further and more elaborate discussion of the'sentences 
in Harvey's English Grammar, are referred to "Hints 
and Helps on English Grammar," published by Raub 
& Co., Philadelphia. 



ARITHMETIC. 



Ctrttt^mctic 



soi-iTJTionsrs 

TO PROBLEMS FOUND IN RAY's PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Art. 82, problem 12. 
124° 00' 
80 42 



15) 43° 18^^=difFerence of longitude. 

2 hr. 53 min. 12 sec.=difference of time, 
hr. min. sec. 
13 00 OO^hour at W. 

2 53 12 



Ans. 10 hrs. 6 min. 48 sec. A. M. 



Art. 130, problem 14. 

$10000^250=40, the number of lots. 
150 ft.X50 ft.=7500 sq. ft., in one lot. 
7500 sq. ft.X40=800000 sq. ft., in 40 lots. 
300000 sq. ft. ^9=33333 sq. yd. +3 sq. ft. 
33333 sq. yd.--30i=1101 sq. rd.-f-27f sq. yd. 
I sq. yd.X9=27 gq_ f^— g gq, ft,4_| gq. ft. 

i sq. ft. X 144=108 sq. in. 
6 sq. ft.-f 3 sq. ft.=9 sq. ft.=l sq. yd. 
27 sq. yd.+l sq. yd.=28 sq. yd. 
1101 sq. rd.---160=6 A. 141 sq. rd. 

Ans. 6 A. 141 sq. rd. 28 sq. yd. 108 sq. in. 



80 ARITHMETIC. 

Art. 160, problem 5. 
49 m.X 39.37=1929.13 in. 
1929.13 in.^l2=160 ft. 9.13 in. 
160 ft. --3=53 yd. 1 ft. 
53 yd.^5^=9 rd. 3^ yd. 
|yd.X3=lift.=l ft. 6 in. 
9.13 in.-f 6 in.=15.13 in.=l ft. 3.13 in. 
1 ft.-l ft.-'~l ft.=3 ft.=l yd. 
3 yd.-j-l yd.=4 yd. 

Ans."^ 9rd. 4 vd. 3.13 in. 



Art. 169, problem 20. 
$150-^l.25=$120, the'cost. 
$200— $120=$80, the supposed gain. 
$80--$120=.66f=66|X, the rate. Ans. 



Art. 173, problem 5. 
1005»^=the list price. 
10X=the first discount. 

1003^—105^=90%. 

105*1) of 90X=9X, the second discount. 

90%— 9%=81X. 

10% of 81%=8.1%, the third discount. 

10%-l-9%+8.1X=27.1%, sum of discounts. 

$325.20^.271=$1200, the cost of 20 dozens. 

$1200^20=-$60, the cost of one dozen. Ans. 



Art. 174, problem 12. 
$150--1.25=$120, cost of the first horse. 
$150--.75=$200, cost of the second horse. 
$150-f $150=$300, selling price of the two horses. 
$200-[-$120=$320, cost price of the two horses. 
$320— $300=$20, the loss. Ans. 



ARITHMETIC. 81 

Art. 175, problem 4. 
12x3=^36, the number of hats. 
37i cts.X36=$13.50, the whole profit. 
$13.50^.125=$108, the cost. 
$108---.90=$120, the list price. Ans. 

Problem 5. 
100/12=1200, the number of papers. 
$1 XlOO=$100, the list price. 
$100— $60 (first dis.)--$40. 
$40— $2 (second dis.)=$38. 
$38—1.90 (third dis.)=$36.10. 
$36.10-h$23.90=$60, the selling price. 
$60^-1200=5 cts., the selling price of one paper. Ans. 

Problem 7. 
$sl-25,>;80=$10000, the cost of the horses. 
$10000; $200=110200, the cost and freight. 
$10450— $10200=$250, the commission. 
$250 ^10000=.025=2^ j^ , the rate. Ans. 

Problem 8. 
1500 lbs. X 50=75000 lbs. 
lOi cts. X 75000=17875. 
$7875X.02=$157.50, the commission. 
$157.50 -$22.50 (charges)=$180. 
$7875— $180=$7695, the consignor receives. 
$7695--1.14=$6750, the cost. 
$6750^75000=9 cts., the cost per pound. Ans. 

Problem 10. 

$35.91 -i.l2=$32.06i, the cost. 
$32.06i-^.95=$33.75, third price. 
$33.75--.90=$37.50, second price. 
$37.50^.75==$50, first (list) price. 
$50-=-50=$l, the list price per gross. Ans. 



82 ARITHMETIC. 

Art. 179, problem 10. 
100%=the par value of the gold. 
/6X=$15.62i, the brokerage. 
. lX=f^$lo.62iXl6=-$250. 
100 i^=|250Xl00=-$2 5000, the par value. 
$2573 4.37i— $25000=*734.37i. 
$734.87i-[-$15.62i=-$750, premium. 
$750^2o000=.03=35^^, rate of premium. 
100%-f3%-=103X, the price of gold. An^, 



Art. 180, problem 5. 

$5220^1.16=$4500, amount in bonds. 
$ 4500 X 06=$ 270, annual income in gold. 
$270X-05=$13.50, premium on the gold. 
$270-|-$13.50=$283.50, income in currency. Ans^ 

Problem 6. 
4|%=the income in gold. 
5%:=rate of premium on gold. 
.045X.05=.0022o=.225^o, premium. 
4.5/0 +.225>o =4.725%, income in currency. 
4.725-^1 08=4.375=41%. Ans. 

Problem 8. 
$1921--1. 13=11700, annual income in gold. 
$ 1703^.0 5=t34000, par value. 
$34000 Xl.l8=$40120, market value. Ans. 

Problem 9, 
95^4-^=95^, the cost, including the brokerage. 
105 — ^^104f , the selling price, minus the brokerage. 
104|— 95i=9i%=.0925, the gain per cent. 
ii;925--.0925=$10000, amount of stock. 
$10000-f-100=100 shares. Ans. 



ARITHMETIC. SB- 

Art. 191, problem 10. 
$20000--=the value of the 20 bonds. 
$4000=the interest for 5 years. 
$4000^5=$800, int. for 1 year. 
$800^4=$200, int. for i year. 
± of 6%=H%, the rate per qr. 
I90=the number of qrs., (19+184-17, etc.). 
$3=the int. on $203 for 1 qr. 
}j?3.Xl90=$570, int. for 190 qrs. 
$4000+$570=$4570, the income in gold. 
$4570X.05=$228.50, gold premium. 
$45704-$228.50=$479S.50, the income in currency.. 
Ans. 



Art. 197, problem 9. 
yr. mon. da. 
1877 1 4 

1876 2 19 

10 mo. 15 da. 
$0.014=dis. on $1 for 2 mon. 24 da. at (j%. 
$1— $0,014=10.986, proceeds. 
$1055.02---.986=$1070, amt. for 10 mon. 15 da. 
$0.07=interest on $1 for 10 mon. 15 da. at 8%. 
$14- $0.07=$ 1.07, am't of $1 for 10 mon. 15 da. 
1070--1.07=$1000, the face of the note. Ans. 

Art. 199, problem 15. 

$2000=the principal. 

$ 292=int. 1 yr. 9 mon. 27 da., at 8 %. 



$2292=the amt. due May 1, 1878. 
$1.031=amountof $1, 6 mon. 6 da., at 6 %. 



84 ARITHMETIC. 

$2292--1.031=$2223.08, present worth. 
$2292— $2223.08=$68.92, the discount. Ans. 

Art. 201, problem 6. 
.n-h$0.00i=$ 1.005, rate of exchange. 
$0.0105=the bank dis. of $1 for 63 days. 
$1.005--$0.0105=$0.9945, cost of exchange for $1. 
$5680X.9945=$5648.76, the cost. Ans. 

Problem 7. 
$l-f$0.00^=$1.0075, rate of exchange. 
$0.0055==:bank dis. of $1 for 33 days. 
$1.0075— $0.0055=$1.002, cost of ex. for $1. 
$1575Xl.002r=$1578.15, the cost. Ans. 

Problem 8. 
$14-$0.01i=$1.015,rate of exchange. 
$0.0105=the bank dis. of $1 for 63 days. 
$1.015— $0.0105=$1.0045, cost of ex. for $1. 
$2625Xl.0045=:=$2636.8125, the cost. Ans. 



Art. 205, problem 7. 

$29.15 X6==$174.90, one annual premium. 
$174.90X15=^$2623,50, fifteen an. prems. 
15+14+13+124-11 + 10 + 9-1 8-r 7-6+5+4+3+2 
+1=120 yr. 
$L74.90X.06X120-=$1259.28, the interest for 120 yrs. 
$2623.50+$1259.28=$3882.78, amt. paid out. Ans. 



Art. 212, problem 4. 
1317.04 m. +34.36 m.=-1351.40 m. 
1351.40 m.X.06=81.084 m.,the commission. 
1351.40 m.+81.084 m.=-1432.484 m., the total costj'n 
marks. 



ARITHMETIC. 85 

1432.484 m.x23.8(cts.)=$340.93, the total cost in 
dollars. 

$341 (dutiable value) X.25=$85.25, the duty. Ans. 
Problem 5. 

1500 ft>x50 (ct8.)=$750.00, the specific duty. 

£8 4s. 6 d.=£849j=:£8.225, the charges. 

£5004-£8.225=:£508.225, the cost and charges. 

£508.225 X.02|=£12.705-|-, the commission. 

£508.225 + £12.705 = £520.93, the total cost in 
pounds. 

£520.93 X4.8665=$2535.11, the total cost in dollars. 

$2535 (dutiable value) X.35=:$887.25, the ad valorem 
duty. 

$887.25+$750=$1637.25, the entire duty. Ans. 



Art. 224, problem 33. 
9 hr. : 12 hr. : : $15S : what?=$20.88«. 
$20.88|==worth of 1 mo.'s services, 12 hr. a day. 
$ 20.888X42=$91.91i, worth of ij mo.'s services. Ans. 

Problem 45. 
70 p. : 20 p. : : 60 sec. : what?=17J sec. 
1142 ft.Xl7i=19577Jft.=3mi.226rd.2yd.2ift, Ans. 



100 men 
^OOyd.l. 
3 yd. w. 
2 yd. d. 
8hrs. 



Art. 225, problem 11. 
180 men 1 
180 yd. 1. 

4 yd. w. I- : : 6 days : what?=24.3 dayi 
3 yd. d. I Ans. 

10 hr. J 



Art. 229, problem 6. 

$300X8 =$2400; $300 -[- $ 100 = $400 ; $400X8 
$3200 ; $3200-!-$2400= 56C0, A's for 1 mo. 



86 ARITHMETIC. 

$600 X 10 = $6000; $600 — $300 = $300 ; $300X6= 
$1800; $1800+$6000=$7800, B's for 1 mo. 
$7800-f$5600=$13400=the whole for 1 mo. 

^^600^28. $442.20X^M184.80, A's. 

V6m=li'^ $442.20X^?=$257.40, B's. 



Art. 231, problem 3. 

Select July 6, when the first bill becomes due. 
July 6, $1250X 00=000000 
Sept. 17, $4280X 73=312440 
Dec. 21, $ 675X168=113400 



6205) 425840( 69 da. nearly. 

Counting 69 days from July 6, gives Sept. 13. A7i$. 

Art. 240, problem 4. 

60 X 60 = 3600 ; 37X37 = 1369 ; 3600—1369=2231 ; 
/2231=47.2334-}-ft.=part width of street. 

60 X 60 = 3600 ; 23X23 = 529 ; 3600— 529 = 3071 ; 
1^307 1=55 4166-|-ft.=part width of street. 

47.2334-f ft.-h55.4166+ ft.=102.65 -|- ft.=the entire 
width of the street. Ans. 

Problem 5. 

600X600=360000; 140x140=19600; 360000—19600 
=340400 ; /340400 = 583.43 + ft. ; 100 ft.--2=50 ft. ; 
583.43 -K ft. — 50 ft.=533.43-fft., the breadth of the 
stream. Aris. 

Problem 6. 

20X20 = 400 ; 16X16 = 256 ; 400 + 256 = 656, the 
square of the diagonal of the floor, also of the base of 
the triangle, of which the hypotenuse is required. 

12 X 12 = 144 ; 656 + 144=800 ; ^800 = 28.28+ft. 
Ans. 



ARITHMETIC. 87 

Art. 252, problem 4. 
10 ft.-^2^5 ft., the radius of the smaller circle; 16 
ft.-^2=8 ft., the radius of the larger circle ; 5x5x3.1416- 
=:78.5400sq. ft.=area of the smaller circle; 8X8X 
3.1416=201.0624 sq ft.=area of the larger circle; 
201.0624.sq. ft— 78.5400 sq. ft.=122.5224sq. ft.; .5224 
sq. ft. X 144=75 sq. in. Ans. 122 sq. ft. 75 sq. in. 

Art. 255, problem 3. 

2+2+2=6; 6^2=3; 3—2=1, first of three re- 
mainders. 

3X1X1X1=3; l'^3=1.732-|-sq. ft., area of base. 

1.732+sq. ft.Xl4=24.248+cu. ft.=.24i cu. ft. nearly. 
Ans. 



Art. 257, problem 4. 
37| ft.=ii^ ft. ; If =2=^f ; (113)2 w3_i4jg ^ ^^^ j4 3 _^ 

sq. ft.=area of base ; 1114.3-hsq. ft X(79|^3) =29622 
-pcu. ft. Ans. 

Art. 259, problem 3. 

1728--5236 = 3300.229; ^'3800.229=14 9 in. nearly. 

Ans. 



Art. 267, problem 4. 
100=number of terms; 6=the first term, also the 
common difference. 

100-1=99; 99X6=594; 591+6=600, the last term. 
600+6 = 606; 606x100=60600; 60600^2 = 30300 
yd. ; 30300 yd.=17 mi. 69 rd. | yd. Ans. 
Problem 5. 
193 in. X 2 = 386 in., common difference ; 386 X 



88 ARITHMETIC. 

(60— 1)=22774; 22774-rl93=22967 in., the last term. 
22967 -f-193=:23 160; 23160X60=1389600; 1389600- 
2=634800 in.=57900 ft. Ans. 



ARITHMETICAL PROBLEMS. 



1. f of the difference i)etween two numbers is 16; 
the smaller number is 12. what is the greater? 

Ans. 36. 

2. A has ^ of $8560, which is 2| times B's money; 
how much money has B? Ans. $2568. 

3. What is the smallest s^um of money for which I 
could hire workmen for one month, paying either $30, 
$48, or $60 a month? Ans. $240. 

4. On what sum of money is $100 the difference be- 
tween the interest calculated at 4 per cent, per annum 
and that at 34^ per cent, for every 10 months. 

Ans, $50000. 

5. 24+12x13— 3=what? Ans. 177. 

6. 24-f 12X(13— 3)=:what? Ans. 144. 

7. (24-t-12)X 13-3=what? Ans. 465. 
Remark. — Tne sign.-* ; : and ^- cannot extend their 

power, forward or backward, beyond a + or a — , with- 
out the aid of the parenthesis. 

8. A has $20J0 ; f of his money -f- $100 is i of B's ; 
what sum lias B? .47kv.'$2800. 

9. At w'Dat rate per cent, per annum will any sum of 
nioncy chnible itself at simple interest in 30 years? 

Ans. 3:4- 

10. Wliat number is tbat from which if we deduct 
'■} ni' it.^( If ar.d ;^ of the rt'nminder, there will be 2S left? 

Ans. 63. 



ARITHMETIC. 89 

11. A man spent f of f more than half his money, 
and had $140 left; how much had he ai first? 

Ans. $G00. 

12. If the difference between two principals, which 
produce the same amount of interest, is $500, the one 
calculated at 4 percent, and the other at 5 per cent., 
find the common interest. Ans. $100. 

13. A loaned B $50 at 6 per cent. On payment B 
found that he was owino; A just $75; how long did he 
use the money? Ans. 8 yr. 4 mo. 

14. A man can row a boat down stream 12 miles per 
hour, and up stream 6 miles per hour ; how far can he 
go down and return in 24 hours? Ans. 96 miles. 

15. A man owning 40 per cent, ofaniron foundry sold 
25 per cent, of his share for $1246 50; what was the 
value of the foundry? Ans. $12465 

16. A's money is 20 per cent, more than B's ; then 
B's Tnone3MS how many per cent, less than A's? 

Ans. 16|. 

17. Bacon which costs 12 cents per pound wastes 15 
per cent, before it is sold ; at what price per pound 
must it be sold to gain 25 i)er cetU? Ans. 17 }i cts. 

18. A ladder 82 ft. long stands close a^ninst a build- 
ing ; how far must it be drawn out at the bottom that 
the top may be lowered 2 ft? Ans. 18 ft. 

19. I spent 25 per cent, of my njoney, then 10 per 
cent, of the remainder, and had $567 left; what had I 
at first? Ans. 840. 

20. Find the compound interest of $750 for 3 yr. 18 
mo. 15 da., at 6 per cent., compounded annually. 

Ans. 181.42. 



90 ARITHMETIC. 

21. Find the bank discount and proceeds of a note 
of $580 for 4 months, at 6 per cent. 

Ans. $11.89 dis.; $488.21 proc. 

22. What is the height of a tree which casts a shadow 
36 ft. long, if a staff 8 ft. fi in. cast a shadow 12 ft. 9 in.? 

Ans. 24 ft. 

23. If a 5-cent loaf weigh 12 oz. when flour is $4 a 
barrel, what should it weigh when flour is $6 a barrel? 

Ans. 8 oz. 

24. I sold a horse for $108, and lost 10 per cent. ; for 
what would I have sold the horse to gain 10 per cent? 

Ans. 132. 

25. A wishes to borrovv $2000 from a bank for 90 
days ; for what sum must he give his note, discounting 
at 6 per cent? Ans. $2031.50. 

26. I invested $13200 in 7 per cent, stock, at 12 per 
cent, discount; what is my annual income? 

Ans. $1050. 

27. Find the simple interest on $6000 for 1 yr. 4 mo. 
13 da,, at 8 per cent. Ans. 657.33. 

28. A cube has an area of 2400 sq. in. ; find its solid 
contents. J.7i8. 8000 cu. in. 

29. The principal is $400, the interest $137.60, and 
the time 4 yr. 3 mo. 18 da. ; what is the rate? 

Ans. 8 per. cent. 

30. Iff of a farm is worth $1800, what is the value 
ofs of it? Ans. $2000. 

31. A, B, and C dine on 8 loaves of bread; A fur- 
nishes 5 and B 3 ; C pays them 18 cents ; how should 
A and B divide the money? Ans. A 15|c., B2^c. 

32. In what time will $126.50 give $2.53 interest at 
5 per cent? Ans. 4 mo. 24 da. 

33. Find the asking price of a hat, which cost $1.20, 



ARITHMETIC. 91 

SO as to abate 6^ per cent., and still make a profit of 
25 per cent. ^tis. $1.60. 

34. 100 eggs are placed in a right line, exactly 2 
yards apart, the first being 2 yards from a basket ; how 
far will a man travel who gathers them up singly, and 
places them in the basket? Ans. 11 mi. 152 rd. 4 yd. 

35. A window sill is just 40 feet from the ground; 
how far from the wall of the house must a ladder 50 
feet long be placed to reach the sill? Ans 30 ft. 

36. Find the diagonal of a room 40 feet long, 30 feet 
wide, 12 feet high. Ans. 51. 4-rft. 

37. How large a square can be cut out of a circular 
board whose circumference is 100 inches? 

Ans. 22. 5-fin. 

38. How many feet of lumber in 21 planks, each 16 
feet long, 18 inches wide, and 2 inches thick? 

Ans. 1008 ft. 

39. Two principals produce the same annual interest, 
$100, one at 4 per cent., the other at 5 per cent. ; find 
the difference of the principals. Ans. $500. 

40. Divide 1272 by the square root of 2809. 

Ans. 24. 

41. Divide the square root of 57600 by the cube root 
of 512, and multiply the quotient by the cube of 4. 

Ans. 1920. 

42. A sphere is 4 feet in diameter ; find its contents. 

Ans. 33.5104 cu. ft. 

43. The area of a circle is 490.875 square feet ; what 
is the diameter? A7is. 25. 

44. If a ball 3 inches in diameter weigh 9 pounds, 
what is the weight of a ball 4 inches in diameter? 

.471.'. 2H lb. 



92 ARITHMETIC. 

45. Compare the areas of two circles whose diame- 
ters are as 4 : 6. Ans. 16 : 36. 

46. I bought a horse for $70 cash, and sold him for 
$84, at a credit of 10 months ; reckoning the interest 
at 6 per cent., how much»did I gain. Ans. $10. 

47. The boundaries of a square and circle are each 
64 feet ; find the difference between the areas. 

Ans. 69.93 sq. ft. 

48. Find the solid contents of a cone, diameter of 
base being 20 feet, altitude 30 feet. 

Ans. 3141.6 cu. ft. 

49. A cubical cistern holds 200 gallons ; what is its 
depth? Ans. 35 in. 

50. The solidity of a sphere is 33.5104 cu, ft. ; what 
is the diameter? Ans. 4 ft. 

51. Find the cost of fencing a square lot, containing 
160 acres, at the rate of $4 per rod. Aiis. $2560. 

52. A general wishes to place 7225 men in the form 
of a square ; how many must he put in each line? 

A71S. 85. 

53. Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 16, 
18, and 20 feet. Ans. 136+ sq. ft. 

54. A ladder 130 feet long will reach to a window 78 
feet high on one side of a street, and on the other to a 
window 50 feet high ; find the width of the street. 

Ans. 224 ft. 



GENERAL HISTORY. 9S 



A BRIEF CHRONOLOGY OF GENERAL HISTORY, 



Asia. 



B. c. 

4004. The Creation of the world. 

2348. The Great Deluge covers the earth. 

2247. The Confusion of Tongues. 

888. The first Assyrian empire overthrown. 

606. The second Assyrian empire overthrown. 

538. The overthrow of the Babylonian empire. 

536. Cyrus the Great establishes the Persian empire. 

480. Leonidas defeated by Xerxes. 

312. The kingdom of Syria founded by Seleucus. 

67. Chang becomes emperor of China. 

61. The Romans conquer Syria and Canaan. 

A. D. 

0. Birth of Christ; the beginning of the Christian 
Era. 
33. Christ crucified. 
70. Titus destroys Jerusalem. 
570. Birth of Mohammed. 
638. The Saracen empire established. 
1258. The Saracen empire overthrown by the Turks. 
1400. Japan discovered by Europeans. 
1854. Treaty between the United States and Japan. 

Africa. 

B. c. 

2188. Egypt settled by Misraim. 

1491. The Israelites depart from Egypt. 

525. Cambyses conquers Egypt. 



"94 GENERAL HISTORY. 

520. Thebes destroyed by Cambyses. 
332. Alexander conquers Egypt. 
30. Death of Cleopatra. 

A. D. 

670. Egypt conquered by the Saracens. 

]517. The Turks conquer Egypt. 

1798. Napoleon invades Egypt. 

1815. Commodore Decatur attacks Algiers. 

1876 — 1877. Henry M. Stanley crosses the continent. 

Europe. 

B. c. 

1856. Greece founded by Inachus. 
. 1556. Athens founded by Cecrops. 
1500. Thebes founded by Cadmus. 
752. Rome founded by Romulus. 
500. The Carthaginian^ make conquests in Spain. 
446. Peloponnesian War begins. 
396. The Gauls ravage Italy, and take Rome. 
323. Death of Alexander, king of Macedon. 
264. First Punic War begins. 
218. Second Punic War begins. 
206. The Romans conquer Spain. 
149. Third Punic War. 
146. Greece reduced to a Roman province. 
91. Social War in Greece begins. 
59. First Triumvirate formed in Rome. 
58. France invaded by Julius C£e3ar. 
55. Britain invaded by Julius Caesar. 
44. CiEsar assassinated. 
43. Second Triumvirate ; death of Cicero. 
25. The Romans complete the conquest of France. 

A. D. 

14. Death of Augustus Caesar, emperor of Rome. 



GENERAL HISTORY. 95 

44. England subdued by the Romans. 

60. Christianity introduced into England. 

290. The Romans expelled from Germany. 

395. Rome divided into the Eastern and Western 
empire. 

400. France invaded by Germanic tribes. 

410. Rome taken by Alaric, a barbaric leader. 

476. Rome taken by Odoacer, chief of the Goths. 

827. Egbert I. becomes king of England. 

871. Alfred ascends the English throne. 

877. England conquered by the Danes. 

1041. Danes expelled from England. 

1066. Harold ascends the throne of England. 

1096. First Crusade begun, led b}^ Peter the Hermit. 

1139. Kingdom of Portugal founded. 

1215. Magna Charta granted by King John. 

1248. Last Crusade begun. 

1299. Ottoman empire founded. 

1328. Beginning of the Hundred-Years War. 

1330. Gunpowder first used in war. It was prob- 
ably invented by Roger Bacon, an English monk of 
the 13th century, and first applied to war, by a Ger- 
man named Schwartz. 

1438. Printing by means of movable types of wood 
invented by a Dutch mechanic named Koster. 

1441. Printing by means of movable types of metal 
invented by John Gutenberg, a German. 

1455. Wars of York and Lancaster begun. 

1456. First edition of the Bible printed. It was 
printed in the Latin language, by Gutenberg. 

1517. Reformation commenced by Martin Luther. 
1558. Elizabeth becomes queen of England. 
1581. The republic of Holland founded. 



96 GENERAL HISTORY. 

1642. Civil war in England begun. 
1649. Charles I. of England beheaded. 
1654, Cromwell made Lord Protector of England. 
166U. Charles II. becomes king of England. 
1760, George III. ascends the English throne. 
1798. Switzerland conquered by the French. 
1804. Napoleon made emperor of France. 
1809. War between France and Austria. 
1815. Battle of Waterloo — Napoleon overthrown. 
1824. Death of Lord Byron. 
1837. Victoria becomes queen of England. 
1848. Revolution in France, and the country be- 
comes a republic. 

1851. Republican government in France terminated 
by Louis Napoleon. 

1852. Louis Napoleon becomes emperor of France. 
1870. Franco-Prussian War ; Napoleon overthrown 

— a republic established. 

1874. Alfonso XII. becomes king of Spain. 
1877. The Turko-Russian War begins. 
1882. Death of Gambetta, of France. 

1891. Death of Charles Stewart Parnell. 

1892. Death of Lord Alfred Tennyson, Poet Laureate 
of England. 





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